1. Urban agriculture and fertiliser trials Course 3 Unit 2 1 Teacher Mariska Ronteltap m.ronteltap@unesco-ihe.org

2. Course 3 Unit 2 Urban agriculture and fertiliser trials Part A: How to apply ecosan products in agriculture Part B: Introduction to urban agriculture Part C: Examples for agricultural reuse research trials

3. 3 This unit deals with which part of the sanitation system?

4. 4 Course 3 Unit 2 Part A: How to apply ecosan products in agriculture Applying urine to the soil next to a young maize plant (Morgan, 2007, p. 86) Course 3 Unit 2 Example in Sweden: See video clip with employee at Nacka Community Greenhouse for flowers and plant production, where urine is used as a fertiliser, recorded in 2004 as part of the movie by WASTE (The Human Excreta Index): mms://mediaserver.mms://mediaserver.ihe.nl/course/video_general/ecosan/human _excreta11_256kbps.wmv (this video clip is also on the course DVD)

5. 5 Multiple-barrier concept to secure safety in reuse 1. Awareness raising and education on hygiene and reuse aspects 2. Adequate treatment for sanitisation (e.g. storage, drying, composting) 3. Suitable handling (with security measures, gloves, boots, handwashing etc.) 4. Limitation to specific vegetables and field crops, or to specific vegetation periods, depending on treatment Spreading of urine before sowing in Sweden See also Appendix (combination of health protection measures) Course 3 Unit 2

6. 6 Reminder: Nutrient excretion by humans is directly linked to diet Rules of thumb for nutrient cycle: We excrete the same amount of nutrients that we take up in our diet (except for children who retain a small proportion for growth of bones) The amount of excreted nutrients by one person is the same amount that is needed as fertiliser to grow the food for that person  Such a beautiful well-balanced loop! N N P P Diet Excreta From: Course 1 Unit 2 Source: Jönsson et at. (2004)

7. 7 Excreta and food production Basically (same info as on previous slide, just in other words) : Source: Jönsson et al. (2004)  The amount of excreted plant nutrients can be calculated from the food intake  If all excreta, biowaste and animal manure are recycled, the fertility of the arable land can be maintained Rule of thumb: Distribute the excreta of people on an area equal to that used for producing food for the people Amount of excreted plant nutrients per person Amount of consumed plant nutrients per person = Source of this slide and the next two: Heeb et al. (2007) Course 3 Unit 2

8. 8 Reminder: fertiliser macronutrient production by humans * Amount of N, P and K needed (in kg/year) to grow 250 kg of maize (this 250 kg maize is roughly equal to the food intake of one person per year, see also next slide) NutrientUnitUrineFaecesTotalMaize * Total nitrogen (TN)kg/cap/yr40.554.555.6 Total phosphorus (TP)kg/cap/yr0.370.180.550.7 Potassium (K)kg/cap/yr10.41.41.2 Source: Jönsson et al. (2004), see also lecture on “Characteristics of urine, faeces and greywater” (Course 1 Unit 2)

9. 9 Rules of thumb about food production If all urine is collected, it suffices to fertilise 300 – 400 m 2 per person (for most crops the maximum application rate before risking toxic effects it at least four times this dosage)  This would be sufficient to grow about 230 kg of cereal crops per year  Recommended calorific food intake: 2500 kcal/cap/d (for males)  Carbohydrates energy density: 4 kcal/g  One male needs ~ 228 kg carbohydrates per year But keep in mind:  need to consider losses of nutrients during agricultural production  the balances don’t work out so well for societies where the people eat a lot of (grain-fed) meat – unless the animal manure is also returned to the land Course 3 Unit 2

10. 10 Guiding principle for fertilisation with ecosan products “We are fertilising the soil, not the plant!”  ecosan products not to be used on plants directly but on the soil in which the plants are grown

11. 11 Urine application at a research field at CREPA headquarters in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso (Photos taken during Refresher Course on ecosan in October 2006)

12. 12 Urine is applied in a furrow about 10 cm away from the plants Linus Dagerskog, a junior professional of SEI (Sweden), during his posting at CREPA

13. 13 Role of faeces as an organic fertiliser High concentrations of P and K Plant availability of nutrients in faecal matter is lower and slower than that of the urine nutrients (N and P stems from undigested matter)  Organic matter in faeces degrades and organic N and P become available Organic matter is beneficial because:  Improves soil structure  Increases the water-holding capacity and ion- buffering capacity of the soil  Supports soil microorganisms by serving as an energy source Source: Jönsson et al. (2004) Course 3 Unit 2

14. 14 Benefits of compost for soil fertility (1/2) Compost* improves soil structure: An ideal, friable garden soil consists of airy crumbs in which particles of sand, clay and silt are held together by humic acid. Compost helps these particles to form. Compost increases the water-holding capacity of soil:  While 50 kg of silt holds 12 kg of water and 50 kg of clay holds 25 kg of water, 50 kg of compost holds 100 kg of water.  A soil rich in compost requires less watering, and plants growing in compost will better withstand drought. Compost moderates soil temperatures: Adding compost to soil tends to keep the soil from heating up or cooling down too rapidly. Soil darkened through the addition of compost absorbs the light and moderates its effect on the growing plant and beneficial soil microorganisms. Compost breaks up organic matter into the basic elements that plants need: Compost is teeming with microorganisms, which continually break down organic matter. * This includes compost made from faeces, faecal sludge and/or organic solid waste (see also Course 2 Unit 6 (Introduction to composting))

15. 15 Benefits of compost for soil fertility (2/2) Compost returns to soil what agriculture takes out of it: Compost is made up of decaying matter, and it includes nearly every chemical a plant needs, including boron, manganese, iron, copper, and zinc which are not present in commercial fertilisers. Compost releases nutrients at the rate plants need them: Compost acts as a storehouse for nutrients, and slowly releases the nutrients throughout the growing season as the organic material decomposes in the soil. The compost layer prevents the surface from drying out, which increases uptake of nutrients and improves the growth of plants. Compost can neutralise soil toxins and heavy metals: Compost binds metals such as cadmium and lead, making it difficult for plants to absorb them. Compost reduces pests and disease: Compost improves plants' ability to withstand attacks by disease and insects by enhancing naturally occurring microbial agents. Furthermore, it reduces the effects of soil- borne pathogens and reduces the amount of plant parasites and nematodes in the soil. Source: Esrey et al. (2001), p. 47 Course 3 Unit 2

16. 16 Visual evidence for agricultural benefits of ecosan products urinefaeces & urine none compost improved soil untreated soil after one week without waterMaize (corn) Source: GTZ presentations It is this sort of evidence that will convince people (especially farmers) of the benefits of ecosan!

17. 17 Source: Morgan (2007), p. 84 without ecosan products with ecosan products The dark green colour comes from more nitrogen uptake Course 3 Unit 2

18. 18 Increased yield for maize (corn) with ecosan products Source: Morgan (2007), p. 84

19. 19 Effect of urine treatment on green leafy vegetables ( dilution 5:1 (2 L urine and 10 L water); watering and urine application can be done together) Rape yield increased by a factor of 5 aftertreatment with urine twice a week (after 28days)Diluted urine was applied during the growthphase Spinach yield increased by a factor of 3.4 aftertreatment with urine twice a week (after 28 days)Source: Peter Morgan on EcosanRes Discussion Forum, 8 Feb2006 (Zimbabwe), see also Morgan (2007), p. 81 & 82

20. 20 How to apply sanitised urine as a fertiliser (1/2) Urine is a quick-acting nitrogen-rich complete fertiliser Urine is best utilised as a direct fertiliser for N-demanding crops and leafy vegetables (e.g. spinach, cauliflower, ornamental flowers and maize) Urine should be applied close to, on or incoporated into the soil Urine may act as an insecticide/fungicide  E.g. killed banana weevils in Tanzania and Uganda (source: Dave on Ecosanres Discussion Forum, 18 August 2006 + answers from others)

21. 21 How to apply sanitised urine as a fertiliser (2/2) Apply nutrients once or twice per growing season (this means urine storage is needed) Apply prior to or at the time of sowing/planting Fertilisation should only take place up to 2/3 or ¾ of the time between sowing and harvest Waiting period of 1 month between fertilisation and harvest is recommended for all crops eaten raw Whether urine is best applied diluted with water or undiluted is still being debated at present For further information on this topic see also Morgan (2007), Section 11 Source: Jönsson et al. (2004) Course 3 Unit 2

22. 22 How to apply sanitised faecal matter as a fertiliser Faecal matter is rich in P, K and organic matter Organic matter and ash, which are often added to the faeces, increase the buffering capacity and pH of the soil Should be applied and mixed into the soil before cultivation starts Application rate can be based on rates for P-based fertilisers Avoid faeces as fertiliser for growing vegetables which are eaten raw Must be applied at a depth where the soil stays moist (dissolve P to make available to plants) For further information on this topic see also Morgan (2007), Section 10

23. “Dried faeces are thrown into the seed hole.” (dried faeces from UDD toilet) Source of this slide and next: NGO training, Visayas, Philippines (see powerpoint file under Assigned Reading). Provided by Glenda Sol.

24. “Some people prefer to use a shovel for moving dried faeces.” Note: It may be recommended to wear gloves and boots when performing this type of work (multiple-barrier approach)

25. 25 Summary for using ecosan products (sanitised urine and faeces) in agriculture AspectSanitised urineSanitised faeces Main agricultural benefit of it Addition of nitrogen (and some P&K)Rich in organic matter (and some P&K) Basis for its application rate (as rule of thumb) Nitrogen load/uptake which crops require Phosphorus load or none (over-fertilisation hardly possible) Where to applyClose to, on or incorporated into the soil Mix into soil at depth where soil is still moist When to apply itPrior to sowing or at time of sowing; not during last month before harvest Before cultivation starts How to apply itPure or diluted with water; Watering can or via drip irrigation; manure spreading equipment Manually (with shovel) is most common

26. 26 Reuse of sanitised greywater in agriculture Treated greywater can be used to irrigate crops Greywater contains some P (from detergents) but little N See literature on treated wastewater reuse (but greywater of ecosan approach would have lower volume and much lower pathogen content than domestic wastewater) See also literature on irrigation For large-scale irrigated agriculture the quanitty of greywater available may be insufficient (depending on the number of households contributing)  Remember: irrigation in agriculture is a major consumer of water Course 3 Unit 2 Note: keep in mind possible impact of salinity and sodicity (sodium content) contained in greywater on soil structure (see also MSc research project by George Munggai in Kenya – in Extra Materials)

27. 27 Example for greywater reuse in low-income areas of Lima (Peru) to grow plants to feed rabbits, which are then eaten by the families See video clip on this topic, recorded in 2004 as part of the movie by WASTE (The Human Excreta Index): mms://mediaserver.mms://mediaserver.ihe.nl/course/video_general/ecosan/human_excreta6_256kbps.wmv (this video clip is also on the course DVD)

28. 28 Hormones and pharmaceutical residues in ecosan products (mainly urine) can be considered a less urgent problem for reuse because…  Vegetation and soil microbes can degrade hormones and pharmaceuticals  It is far better to recycle urine and faeces (with their hormones and pharmaceuticals) to arable land than to flush them into recipient waters  Retention time of wastewater in conventional WWTPs is too short to degrade these substances Pharmaceutical substances have been detected for decades in groundwater of Berlin which is Berlin’s source of drinking water  Aquatic systems have never before been exposed to mammal hormones in large quantities Source: Jönsson et al. (2004)

29. 29 Four aspects to consider regarding pharmaceutical residues (PhaR) release via urine fertilisation (1/2) 1. Its composition depends of people urine is coming from. Urine of hospitals is not recommended to be used in agriculture. But still source separated collection of urine in hospitals could be an advantage to eliminate PhaR from wastewater more effectively. More and more details regarding appropriate techniques become available (Tettenborn et al. (2006)). In contrary, urine collected in small households and used within them is not considered to impose any risks. 2. It is important to store urine over some time. Due to time and pH changes via storage PhaR are destroyed up to a certain degree (Strompen, S. et al. (2003)). Additionally, certain PhaR are sensitive regarding sunlight and destroyed via photodegradation (Buser, H. et al. (1998)). 3. Soil ecoystems can take more than aquatic ecosystems. They are much more stable and degrade PhaR to a certain extend in soil as was shown in investigations dealing with veterinary pharmaceuticals in animal manure (Grote, M. et al. (2004)). 4. Additionally, timing and type of crops fertilized with urine is important.

30. 30 Continued from last slide Regarding the risk of PhaR release via urine fertilization the following aspects should be Still many aspects are not discussed finally and further investigations are needed to clarify remaining questions. But source separation systems are a promising option to avoid the release of PhaR into the environment. Additionally, a lot of fruitful effects should be possible by combining source separation and conventional wastewater treatment systems. E.g. by separating urine a more effective treatment of pharmaceuticals in this separated stream becomes possible and wastewater treatment plant is disburdened by loads of nitrogen and other nutrients which are hold back at the same time. The ideal situation has to be designed according to local conditions. --------------- Source: Hammer, M. & Otterpohl, R. (2006): Pharmaceutical residues in the environment – advantages and disadvantages of conventional wastewater treatment and ecological sanitation systems. In: Proceedings of 4th International Water Forum "AQUA Ukraine - 2006"and International Forum "Ecological Technologies - 2006", September 19th - 21st, 2006. Kiev, Ukraine, pp. 474-477. Website from where you can get the full paper + many more: http://www.tu- harburg.de/aww/publikationen/index.htmlhttp://www.tu- harburg.de/aww/publikationen/index.html (See also discussion on EcosanRes discussion forum 17 Oct 2007)

31. 31 Another point on the question of pharmaceutical residues and hormones in urine We currently apply ample animal manure to the land (e.g. the Netherlands, Europe) This animal manure also contains hormones and pharmaceutical residues because of our intensive animal husbandry practices For some reason, nobody seems to question the risks involved in that (??) See also the paper from Hammer and Clemens (2007) on this topic, under Extra Materials

32. 32 What if people are still really worried about eating food fertilised with human excreta? You can use human excreta also on other types of crops, which are not eaten by humans, e.g.  Flowers  Potted plants  Fibre-producing plants (e.g. hemp)  Fodder crops  Oil-producing plants, e.g. olive trees  Trees

33. 33 Course 3 Unit 2 Part B: Introduction to urban agriculture Course 3 Unit 2

34. 34 What is the definition of “urban”? The definition of “urban” is not straight forward and varies from country to country  Some countries use a minimum number of population (e.g. Zambia: > 5000; Senegal: > 10,000) or a minimum number of dwellings (Peru: > 100) UNStats definition: 75% of economic activities are non-agricultural European countries: the area based on urban-type land use, not allowing any gaps Source: MSc thesis de Silva (2007), p. 8 – provided in Extra Materials

35. 35 Urban agriculture Definition = production of crops and/or livestock on land, which is administratively and legally zoned for urban uses  can be “illegal cultivation of public land”  there may be a reluctant tolerance of urban agriculture (recognition of increased pressures on the urban poor) Source: Gumbo (2005), p. 11 & 135 See Chapter 1 and Chapter 3 under Extra Reading Yemen: crops in old Sana'a town http://www.fao.org/NEWS/FOTOFILE/PH9901-e.htm Sometimes residents can apply for permission to use designated land for the cultivation of crops

36. 36 Should urban areas have agriculture? One MSc student once said to me: “If agriculture is practised in an urban area, this area should no longer be called “urban”!?” – Is there a contradiction between the terms “urban” and “agriculture”? What do you think?

37. 37 Urban agriculture activities In cities such as Lusaka and Dar es Salaam as much as 50% of the food is produced within the city Land types used, e.g. in Harare, Zimbabwe: railway reserve, moderate slope, steep slope, roadside, seasonally waterlogged drainage ways Source: Gumbo (2005), p. 12 & 136 See Chapter 1 and Chapter 3 under Extra Materials http://www.thefoodproject.org/agriculture/Internal1.asp?id=97

38. 38 On-plot and off-plot urban agriculture – Example Harare, Zimbabwe ParameterOn-plot urban agriculture Off-plot urban agriculture Type of water usedPiped municipal supply Rainwater only Main fertiliser usedOrganic fertiliserMineral fertiliser Main crop grownLeafy vegetablesMaize Source: Gumbo (2005), p. 136 See Chapter 3 under Extra Materials Course 3 Unit 2

39. 39 Example cities in developing countries where urban agriculture is well documented  Accra (Ghana)  Lima (Peru)  Kampala (Uganda) Further information on these and other cities: See also the EU project SWITCH (led by UNESCO-IHE), where one work package is entitled “Use of urban water (fresh and wastewater) for urban agriculture and other livelihood opportunities”. http://www.switchurbanwater.eu/ SWITCH = Sustainable Water Management Improves Tomorrow's Cities' Health Also see the literature review of the MSc thesis of de Silva (2006), p. 43 – 63 (for Accra and Lima)

40. 40 Urban agriculture or allotment garden in Ede, The Netherlands (note proximity to railway line), January 2007

41. 41 Resource Centre for Urban Agriculture in the Philipines The Periurban Vegetable Project (PUVeP) is a research and outreach unit of Xavier University College of Agriculture, Cagayan de Oro City, which started its operation in October 1997. PUVeP provides research, training and education related to urban natural resources management and food production in the city The following 23 slides were kindly provided by Robert Holmer, director of the PUVeP, from his presentation at the GTZ Ecosan Symposium 26-27 October 2006 in Eschborn, Germany

42. 42 Allotment Gardens Community gardens are defined as gardens where people share the basic resources of land, water, and sunlight. This definition includes both allotment and common gardens.  Allotment gardens: the parcels are cultivated individually  Common gardens: the overall area is tended collectively by a group of people (in German: “Schreber-Garten”, from a Dr. Schreber in the 19th century!) Course 3 Unit 2

43. 43 Allotment Garden in UK, Germany and Switzerland

44. 44 Reichstag, Berlin (around 1900 shortly after it was built) Course 3 Unit 2

45. 45 Reichstag, Berlin (April 1945) – end of World War II

46. 46 Reichstag, Berlin (spring 1946): Urban agriculture in the centre of Berlin (people were starving)

47. 47 Reichstag, Berlin (spring 1946) Course 3 Unit 2

48. 48 Reichstag building, Berlin (2006) – no more urban agriculture in this particular area of Berlin (but allotment gardens are still popular in Berlin!) Course 3 Unit 2

49. 49 Case Study: Allotment gardens in Cagayan de Oro, Phillipines Seven areas in the city made legally available to 99 urban poor families for production of crops  Two of them are located within the premises of public elementary schools Integrates aspects of solid waste management, ecological sanitation, participatory land use planning and community organizing

50. 50 Methodology for pilot allotment gardens Minimum of 8 individual allotment units with 288 m 2 each (gross 3000 m 2 ) Area is fenced, with entrance, bodega and water supply Surrounding areas can be planted with border crops Contains a compost heap for biodegradable household wastes and urine- diverting dry (UDD) “ecosan toilet”

51. 51 Construction of Ecosan Toilets in 2005 Methodology: Ecosan Toilet Establishment Course 3 Unit 2

52. 52 Inauguration of Ecosan Toilets in presence of city officials and representatives of the German Technical Cooperation Methodology: Ecosan Toilet Establishment Course 3 Unit 2

53. 53 Urine application through drip irrigation system Application of urine through furrowing Transportation of urine container Reuse of Ecosan Products

54. 54 Sweetcorn fertilised with urine Yield increases up to 30 % Larger cobs (3-4 cobs/kg compared to 5-6 cobs/kg) Reuse of Ecosan Products

55. 55 Allocation of Vegetables% Sold68 Own consumption25 Given away to friends/relatives6 Place where vegetables are sold% At the garden94 In the neighborhood9 In the market0 Results: Allocation of Vegetables produced in Allotment Gardens

56. 56 Consumption level of vegetables after Allotment Garden has been established% Increased94 Same level6 Percentage of increase in consumption level 50%13 75%6 100%75 No comment6 How would be your vegetable consumption level if the AGP will stop its operation? Will consume the same amount19 Will consume less81 Results: Vegetable Consumption Levels Course 3 Unit 2

57. 57 Willingness to eat vegetables fertilized with urine Gardeners (%) Non-gardeners (%) Yes9256 No844 Willingness to eat vegetables fertilized with faeces Yes9262 No838 Results: Perception towards reuse of Ecosan products (prior to implementation)

58. 58 Factors to decide suitability for allotment gardens  Water resources availability (the closer the better)  Soil organic matter content (the higher the better)  Proximity to main road (the further away the better)  Proximity to houses/buildings These factors are further illustrated on the next four slides

59. 59 Identification of AG sites using GIS: Water resources for irrigation AG = allotment garden

60. 60 Identification of AG sites using GIS: Water resources for irrigation

61. 61 Course 3 Unit 2 Identification of AG sites using GIS: Water resources for irrigation

62. 62 Identification of AG sites using GIS: Water resources for irrigation

63. 63 Course 3 Unit 2 Part C: Examples for agricultural reuse research trials Example 1: Zimbabwe Example 2: Valley View University, Accra, Ghana Course 3 Unit 2

64. 64 THE EFFECT OF USING HUMANURE AND URINE ON MAIZE PRODUCTION AND WATER PRODUCTIVITY BY EDWARD GUZHA Third ecological sanitation conference 23-26 May 2005 DURBAN South Africa Example 1: Work of Mvuramanzi Trust in Harare, Zimbabwe Example from Zimbabwe Available from: http://conference2005.ecosan.org/papers/guzha.pdf Also placed under Extra Materials

65. 65 Background of the study Global nutrient depletion Over used soils in Southern Africa Deteriorating cereal production in Southern Africa Increased cost of commercial fertilisers Nutrient inflow into surface and ground water bodies as sewage Example from Zimbabwe Course 3 Unit 2

66. 66 Objectives Assesses effect of using Humanure and Ecofert on crop production Investigate the effect of human excreta on water productivity Humanure = dried sanitised faeces Ecofert = urine Example from Zimbabwe

67. 67 Humanure in Toilet Vault Example from Zimbabwe People use old newspapers for anal cleansing

68. 68 Study design Two factor randomized 10 x 10 block design looking at nutrient and water Nutrient being assessed on four levels:  Treatment 1: the control (no fertilizer)  Treatment 2: commercial fertilizer  Treatment 3: ecofert  Treatment 4: humanure and ecofert Ecofert and water being assessed on two levels:  Rain fed and  Supplementary irrigation Example from Zimbabwe

69. 69 Methods Land preparation was done using ox drawn plough Four plots:  Plot 1: Control plot, no addition of nutrients  Plot 2: Artificial fertiliser treatment: Compound D (NPK 7:18:7) as basal fertiliser and ammonium nitrate as top dressing; 6 g per crop  Plot 3: Urine (ecofert) added at 100 mL per crop as basal treatment, and 100 mL as the top dressing after 4 weeks when crop was at knee level  Plot 4: Faecal matter (humanure) applied as basal fertiliser at 80 g per planting station, urine applied at 100 mL per plant Growth monitoring done at 4 weeks interval Example from Zimbabwe Course 3 Unit 2

70. 70 Findings: Crop growth parameters Leaf lengthLeaf width Crop height Example from Zimbabwe Legend 1: no fertilizer 2: artificial fertilizer 3: urine 4: humanure and urine Leaf width (mm) Crop height (mm)

71. 71 Findings continued… Maize yield Incomes Gross margins Example from Zimbabwe Legend 1: no fertilizer 2: commercial fertilizer 3: urine 4: humanure and urine

72. 72 Edward Guzha with maize grown with ecosan products Example from Zimbabwe

73. 73 Conclusions – 1/3 Humanure and ecofert improves soil fertility considerably  Water holding capacity is improved by about 4%  It can help to improve crop resilience to mid season dry spells Humanure + Ecofert improves maize crop production with yields ranging 3500 kg/ha compared to 1500 kg/ha for a crop without a nutrient amendment (ecofert = urine) Example from Zimbabwe Course 3 Unit 2

74. 74 Conclusions – 2 / 3 In dollar terms a farmer earns more money per volume of water to produce a unit of grain by adopting the use of humanure and ecofert as alternative crop nutrient.  A farmer who uses humanure + ecofert gets about US$ 96 cents/ha compared to anything down to zero for a farmer who does not use any nutrient Example from Zimbabwe

75. 75 Conclusions – 3 / 3 Humanure + ecofert improve water productivity by above 10% in rain-fed maize production ensuring more crop per drop of water.  Water consumption for a crop where humanure + ecofert is used, is around 1300 m 3 /ton compared to a situation where nothing was used which is about 2300 m 3 /ton.  More crop per drop! (more ton maize per m 3 water used) Example from Zimbabwe

76. 76 Example 2: Valley View University (VVU) in Accra Ghana I have copied two slides here from the presentation by Germer and Sauerborn (2006) The full presentation is available under Assigned Reading See also their website: www.uni-hohenheim.de/respta Course 3 Unit 2

77. 77 Agricultural production units at VVU Urine Fecal compost Sanitary grey water Kitchen grey water Fruit orchards Vegetable gardens Tree plantations Rain fed farming Recycling Nutrients to Enhance Agricultural Productivity — Valley View University in Accra, Ghana / Germer, J. & Sauerborn, J.

78. 78 Nutrient efficiency – urine versus mineral fertilisers and manure (2004) Maize Very low precipitation Distinct difference of vegetative growth between treatments  Severe draught stress  Plant height development Recycling Nutrients to Enhance Agricultural Productivity — Valley View University in Accra, Ghana / Germer, J. & Sauerborn, J.

79. 79 References used in this presentation (1) Esrey, S., Andersson, I., Hillers, A., Sawyer, R. (2001) Closing the loop – ecological sanitation for food security, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). Available: www.ecosanres.org * Gumbo, B. (2005) Short-cutting the phosphorus cycle in urban ecosystems. PhD Thesis, UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands ** Heeb, J., Jenssen, P., Gnanakan, K. & K. Conradin (2007): ecosan curriculum 2.0. In cooperation with: Norwegian University of Life Sciences, ACTS Bangalore, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, German Agency for Technical Cooperation and the International Ecological Engineering Society. Partially available from www.seecon.ch and http://www2.gtz.de/dokumente/oe44/ecosan/cb/en-m23- ecosan-human-dignity-lecture-2006.ppt **www.seecon.chhttp://www2.gtz.de/dokumente/oe44/ecosan/cb/en-m23- ecosan-human-dignity-lecture-2006.ppt Jönsson, H., Richert Stintzing, A., Vinneras, B., and Salomon, E. (2004) Guidelines on use of urine and faeces in crop production. Report 2004-2, Ecosanres, Stockholm, www.ecosanres.org ** www.ecosanres.org * Also under Assigned Reading for this course unit ** Also under Extra Materials for this course unit

80. 80 References used in this presentation (2) Hammer, M. and Clemens, J. (2007) A tool to evaluate the fertiliser value and the environmental impact of substrates from wastewater treatment. Advanced Sanitation Conference, Aachen, March 2007 ** Morgan, P. (2007) Toilets That Make Compost - Low-cost, sanitary toilets that produce valuable compost for crops in an African context, Stockholm Environment Institute, Ecosanres Programme, Stockholm, Sweden. Available: www.ecosanres.org *www.ecosanres.org WHO (2006) Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater: Volume 4, Excreta and greywater use in agriculture. World Health Organisation, Geneva, available: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/gsuww/en/ *http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/gsuww/en/ Website of the Periurban Vegetable Project in the Phillipines: http://puvep.xu.edu.ph/index.php *** Also under Extra Materials for one of the other course units: Course 4 Unit 2 * Also under Assigned Reading for this course unit ** Also under Extra Materials for this course unit

81. 81 Appendix Reminder: WHO Guidelines from 2006 In order to better package the guidelines for appropriate audiences, the third edition of the Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater is presented in four separate volumes: Volume 1, Policy and regulatory aspects Volume 2, Wastewater use in agriculture Volume 3, Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture Volume 4, Excreta and greywater use in agriculture All volumes could be of relevance in the ecosan context. I have first read volume 4, and then also had a look at volume 2. In the following slides I have copied some key bits of information for you. Course 3 Unit 2

82. 82 WHO Guidelines for reuse: overview Download from this website: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/gsuww/e n/ WHO Guidelines have to be converted into national guidelines Guidelines to stipulate processes known to achieve adequate sanitisation Best practise guidance in risk assessment and management Describe possible risk management interventions for the various phases from generation of waste(water) to consumption of products Appendix

83. 83 Explanation about DALY 1/3 Source: WHO (2006) Volume 2, p. 11 See also the powerpoint presentation by Nick Ashbolt, Australia, which explains DALY in more detail (see Extra Materials) Appendix

84. 84 Explanation about DALY 2/3 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DALY Appendix The disability-adjusted life year (DALY) is a measure of overall disease burden. Originally developed by the World Health Organization, it is becoming increasingly common in the field of public health and health impact assessment (HIA). It "extends the concept of potential years of life lost due to premature death...to include equivalent years of ‘healthy’ life lost by virtue of being in states of poor health or disability." [2] In so doing, mortality and morbidity are combined into a single, common metric.disease burden World Health Organizationpublic healthhealth impact assessmentdeathdisability [2] mortalitymorbidity Traditionally, health liabilities were expressed using one measure: (expected or average number of) Years of Life Lost (YLL). This measure does not take the impact of disability into account, which can be expressed by: Years Lived with Disability (YLD). DALYs are calculated by taking the sum of these two components. In a formula:Years of Life Lost (YLL) DALY = YLL + YLD. [3] [3] The DALY relies on an acceptance that the most appropriate measure of the effects of chronic illness is time, both time lost due to premature death and time spent disabled by disease. One DALY, therefore, is equal to one year of healthy life lost. Japanese life expectancy statistics are used as the standard for measuring premature death, as the Japanese have the longest life expectancies. [4]Japanese [4] Looking at the burden of disease via DALYs can reveal surprising things about a population's health. For example, the 1990 WHO report indicated that 5 of the 10 leading causes of disability were psychiatric conditions. Psychiatric and neurologic conditions account for 28% of all years lived with disability, but only 1.4% of all deaths and 1.1% of years of life lost. Thus, psychiatric disorders, while traditionally not regarded as a major epidemiological problem, are shown by consideration of disability years to have a huge impact on populations.psychiatric conditionsPsychiatricneurologicepidemiological

85. 85 Explanation on DALY’s in other words 3/3 The Disability Adjusted Life Year or DALY is a health gap measure that extends the concept of potential years of life lost due to premature death (PYLL) to include equivalent years of ‘healthy’ life lost by virtue of being in states of poor health or disability. The DALY combines in one measure the time lived with disability and the time lost due to premature mortality. One DALY can be thought of as one lost year of ‘healthy’ life and the burden of disease as a measurement of the gap between current health status and an ideal situation where everyone lives into old age free of disease and disability. Appendix

86. 86 Combinations of health protection measures (scenarios A to H) Source: WHO (2006) Volume 2, p. 65 Appendix

87. 87 Examples of hazard barriers for wastewater use in agriculture (same principle as multi-barrier approach) Source: WHO (2006) Volume 2, p. 17 Appendix

88. 88 In conventional sanitation systems, biosolids are also often applied to land Common elements with ecosan approach:  Biosolids also originate from human excreta (a side product of conventional WWTPs; biosolids are also called “sewage sludge”)  The fertiliser qualities of biosolids have generally been recognised Differences to ecosan approach:  Land application is more seen as a disposal pathway  Biosolids may contain high concentrations of toxic organic substances and heavy metals (from industrial wastewater)  Many countries have detailed legislation (e.g. in the USA, Class A and Class B biosolids; refers to quality differences with respect to pathogen concentrations) Dried biosolids from centralised wastewater treatment plant in Brisbane, Australia (2001) Course 3 Unit 2 Appendix