1. Ch. 13 The Roots of Arab Bitterness Why do you think the author chose this title as opposed to “Roots of Arab Nationalism”?

2. Arab Nationalism: belief that the Arabs constitute a single political community and should have a common government One major problem is there is no general agreement as to who is an Arab Arabs has not been united since time of High Caliphate and even then they had their differences Historians argue that Arab identity played no great part in Middle East politics up to the 20 th century

3. Christian Arab Nationalists In the 19 th century, ¼ of Arabs under Ottoman rule belonged to protected minorities, mainly Christians In Syria, U.S. missionaries set up a number of schools “The American missionaries hoped to convert Arab youth to Protestantism through exposure to the Arabic Bible; the unintended outcome was to make them cherish more their heritage of Arabic literature and history. Their secular colleagues taught them to respect western ideals of liberalism and democracy, and the students applied them to building an Arab nationalist ideology”

4. World War I – Rise of Arab Nationalism Ottoman Empire enters WWI on German side in August, 1914. Motives were to regain Egypt from Britain and Caucasus Mountain region from Russia. Ottoman Sultan officially declared a jihad against Britain, France and Russia Ottoman armies put pressure on British in Egypt. Britain forced to commit 100,000 soldiers there British attempt to plot against Ottoman Empire by creating an anti- Ottoman alliance with Husayn, the current leader of Hashemites in Mecca. Husayn is supposedly a direct descendant of MH

6. Husayn – McMahon Correspondence Husayn = amir of Mecca Henry McMahon = British leader in Egypt In agreement between the two: “Britain pledged that if Husayn proclaimed an Arab revolt against Ottoman rule, it would provide military and financial aid during the war and would then help to create independent Arab governments in Fertile Crescent and Arabian Peninsula Husayn does not accept this initial deal Husayn bin – Ali, Sharif of Mecca

7. Arab Revolt In Syria, Ottoman governor (Jemal) forces peasants into military service. Life deteriorates there, creating rise of Arab nationalists. Jemal has 22 Arab nationalists publicly hanged in Damascus Husayn’s son, Faysal, who was working with nationalists in Syria, returns to Mecca to convince his father that the time had arrived to revolt against the Ottomans On June 5 th, 1916, Husayn declares Arabs under Ottoman rule to be independent. Arabs in the Hejaz, Syria, and Palestine take up arms against the Turks

8. Arabs begin working in tandem with Egyptian Expeditionary Force, and march north into Palestine, taking Jerusalem and Amman In 1918, Arabs enter Damascus and establish it as seat of a provisional Arab government Arab force carrying the Arab National Flag

9. Ottomans, also being attacked by joint Anglo-Indian force in Iraq, retreat. In October, 1918, Ottoman Empire signed an armistice with the allies. The Arabs, promised self-government by the British, were jubilant

10. HOWEVER…….

11. Sykes – Picot Agreement …….the jubilance of the Arabs would not last for long. The British had promised France and Russia a piece of the pie in the secretive Sykes – Picot Agreement drawn up in May, 1916 Sykes – Picot: 1.Direct French rule in much of Syria 2.Direct British rule in lower Iraq 3.Indirect British rule from Egyptian border eastward 4.Enclave around Jaffa & Jerusalem under “international rule”

12. TO FURTHER ANGER THE ARABS…..

13. Balfour Declaration Announced on Nov. 2nd, 1917, it is a British delcaration that they intended to set up a Jewish state in Palestine. The Arabs had not been consulted.

14. Post War Peace Settlement At Versailles, Zionists represented by Chaim Weizmann; the Arabs by Faysal and T.E. Lawrence Arab delegation at Versailles: Faysal in front, TE Lawrence to his back left Dr. Chaim Weizmann

15. Versailles unable to reconcile competing interests in former Ottoman lands in the Middle East President Wilson sends the King-Crane Commission to the region with the objective of finding out what the people wanted King – Crane discovered: 1.Local people wanted complete independence under Faysal 2.They favored American tutelage over W. Europe 3.The creation of a Jewish state in Palestine would provoke a serious Jewish-Arab conflict Faysal hoped King-Crane would persuade Wilson to support the Arab cause. Unfortunately for the Arabs, Wilson never got to read the King-Crane report…he had a stroke and never recovered.

16. Mandate : in this context, a mandate was a commission given by the League of Nations to a western power to prepare a former territory of Germany or the Ottoman Empire for eventual self- rule In San Remo, 1920, British and French representatives agree to divide Middle East mandates in the following manner: 1.France: Syria (Lebanon) 2.Britain: Iraq, Palesine (Jordan) 3.Hejaz remains independent

17. Four Mandates & Emirate French rule Syrian mandate as though it were a colony Split Syria into smaller states, one of which was Lebanon. Lebanon, with its Christian majority, is only one that lasts In Iraq, British control led to a general Arab insurrection in 1920. The British allow Faysal to take power as King in Iraq and to move towards independence which is achieved in 1932

18. Abdullah, another son of Husayn, raised an army and occupied Amman, threatening to raid further into Syria. The British, in an attempt to pacify Abdullah, give him part of Palestine east of the Jordan River as a temporary solution until the French left Syria Abdullah accepts, and his followers stay in Transjordan, and begin road to independence. (Known today as “Jordan”) Abdullah of Jordan

19. The rest of the Palestinian Mandate will turn into a disasterous situation…..