1. Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 4.1 Hall-Hèrault cell for aluminum manufacture.

2. Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 4.2 A chloralkali membrane cell. The multiplate cathode and anode are louvered as shown to deflect gas bubbles away from the membrane. The bubbles of hydrogen and chlorine become entrained in their respective solution streams, from which they are subsequently separated. Some of the sodium hydroxide produced in the electrolysis is diluted and recycled.

3. Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 4.3 The electrolysis of water produces oxygen at the anode and hydrogen at the cathode. Ions from an electrolyte are necessary to provide conductivity but these play no role in the electrode reactions.

4. Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 4.4 In electrodialysis, multiple membranes, alternatingly anion permeable and, cation permeable, direct the ions into the salt compartments, denuding the chambers they leave.

5. Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 4.5 Three salt-splitting cell configurations applied to sodium sulfate solutions.

6. Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 4.6 Salt-splitting cell incorporating bipolar and monopolar membranes. The letters represent Salt, Water, Acid, and Base.