1. Which of these is a scientific hypothesis?
Human beings will never set foot on the moon.
Some of the laws that govern nature cannot be detected by scientists.
It is quite possible that in some other galaxy the laws of physics are fundamentally different than the laws we are acquainted with in this galaxy.
Ch 1-1

2. Which of these is a scientific hypothesis?
Human beings will never set foot on the moon. 2. Some of the laws that govern nature cannot be detected by scientists. 3. It is quite possible that in some other galaxy the laws of physics are fundamentally different than the laws we are acquainted with in this galaxy.
Ch 1-1
Answer: 1
Only hypothesis 1 is scientific, because it can be tested. Another criterion for whether or not a hypothesis is scientific is that there be a test if it is wrong. Hypothesis 1 is not only testable, but was proven wrong in Even a wrong hypothesis can be a scientific one.
Hypothesis 2 cannot be tested, and is therefore unscientific.
Likewise with Hypothesis 3, which is speculation. If we searched the universe and found no galaxies with different laws, this wouldn’t be proof that “just around the corner” is a galaxy operating under different laws. A hypothesis that can be proved right but is not capable of being proved wrong is not a scientific hypothesis.
Making a scientific hypothesis deliberately places oneself at risk of admitting the hypothesis is wrong. The scientist says, “If you conduct a test and it turns out to be negative, then my hypothesis is wrong.” To be a scientist, you must gracefully accept the outcome of a test, whether positive or negative. That’s the spirit of inquiry!

3. A sign of weakness in Bertrand Russell?
The great philosopher and mathematician Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) wrote about ideas in the early part of his life that he rejected in the latter part of his life. Do you see this as:
A sign of weakness in Bertrand Russell?
A sign of strength in Bertrand Russell?
Ch 1-2

4. The great philosopher and mathematician Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) wrote about ideas in the early part of his life that he rejected in the latter part of his life. Do you see this as:
1. A sign of weakness in Bertrand Russell? 2. A sign of strength in Bertrand Russell?
Ch 1-2
Answer: 2
To publicly change your mind about your ideas is a sign of strength rather than a sign of weakness. It takes more courage to change your ideas when confronted with counter evidence than to hold fast to your ideas. If a person’s ideas and view of the world are no different after a lifetime of varied experience, then that person either was miraculously blessed with unusual wisdom at an early age, or learned nothing. The latter is more likely. Education is learning that which you don’t yet know. It would be arrogant to think that you know it all in the later stages of your education, and stupid to think so at the beginning of your education.
Russell wrote, “I think we must retain the belief that scientific knowledge is one of the glories of man. I will not maintain that knowledge can never do harm. I think such general propositions can almost always be refuted by well-chosen examples. What I will maintain—and maintain vigorously—is that knowledge is very much more often useful than harmful and that fear of knowledge is very much more often harmful than useful.”