1. Human Development

2. Development is the sequence of age related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death . It encompasses changes in physical, cognitive and social behaviors.
Major issues
A. Nature versus nurture — are we more affected by heredity or environment?
B. Continuity versus discontinuity — is developmental change gradual, or do we progress through distinct stages ?

3. Developmental Research Methods
A. Cross-sectional research involves studying a variety of ages at a given point in time.
B. Longitudinal research follows the same group of subjects for many years.
C. In cohort-sequential research, several age groups are studied periodically.
D. Historical research revolves around the particular historical circumstances of an era.

4. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

5. It is divided into 3 phases (these are NOT the same as trimesters)
The prenatal period extends from conception to birth, usually nine months.
It is divided into 3 phases (these are NOT the same as trimesters)
The germinal stage (first 2 weeks)
The embryonic stage (2 weeks to 2 months)
The fetal stage (2 months to birth)

6. The germinal stage The zygote is formed by the union of sperm and egg.
The zygote moves through the fallopian tubes to uterus.
7th day, the mass of cells implants itself in the uterine wall
As many as 1 in 5 pregnancies end at this point if implantation is not successful.
Placenta starts to form

7. Embryonic Stage Vital organs and bodily systems begin to form
Heart, spine, and brain emerge
1 inch long but arms, hands, feet , fingers, toes, eyes and ears are discernable.
This is a time of great vulnerability
All of the basic systems are forming and interference or damage at this time will have wide ranging and permanent effects
Most miscarriages occur at this time.

8. Fetal Stage The baby becomes capable of movement
Organs grow and begin to function
Sex organs start to develop in the 3rd month
Final three months
Brain cells multiply
Respiratory and digestive systems mature
Layer of fat deposited under the skin for insulation
Between 22 and 26 weeks the fetus becomes viable or able to live outside the womb.

9. Environmental factors in prenatal development.

10. Maternal nutrition
Severe malnutrition at this time increases the risk of birth complications and neurological defects.
These effects can last for years or the entire lifetime.
This has been linked to schizophrenia, heart disease, diabetes

11. Maternal Drug Use
Most drugs consumed by the mother pass through the placenta
Heroin: babies are born addicted, increased risk of early death, birth defects
Cocaine: birth complications and cognitive/learning problems in childhood
Marijuana: cognitive issues, attention and impulse control issues and problem solving difficulties

12. Alcohol: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome- a collection of physical and psychological problems including irritability, hyperactivity and delayed mental and motor development, depression, suicide, drug problems and criminal behaviour
Tobacco: SIDS, slower cognitive development, attention deficit, hyperactivity and behaviour issues.
Many presciption drugs also can affect the fetus.

13. Maternal Illness
The fetus has a very weak immune system so therefore is basically defenseless against infections
All of this damage depends, in part, on when the mother is exposed to the danger,
Generally speaking an embryo will be much more damaged than a fetus.

15. Infancy

16. Infancy:
1. Growth rate declines throughout infancy but is faster than during any other postnatal period.
2. Maturation and learning combine to determine skill development and replace reflexes.

17. Motor/co-ordination development
Humans develop in two ways
1. Cephalocaudal (head to tail) development
Babies gain control over the upper part of their bodies before the lower part
2. Proximodistal (from the center outward) development
Babies gain control over their torso before their extremities
Motor development is based on the infants’ experimentation and learning and remembering of the consequences of their behaviour
However each baby has their own genetic rate of maturation determined in part by their genetic make up.

18. http://www. westone. wa. gov

19. Temperament: “Easy” vs “Difficult” Babies
Temperament refers to the characteristic mood, activity level and emotional reactivity
Babies exhibit their own characteristic temperament by between 2 and 3 months.
This is a very good predictor of their personality at age 10.
Temperament can be described in several ways

20. Temperament IS NOT destiny.
Temperament is heavily influenced by heredity and tends to be stable over time
HOWEVER it is not unchangeable.
Parental reactions and other social experiences can gradually shape children’s personality.
Temperament IS NOT destiny.

21. Temperament: Thomas and Chess 1977
Easy: happy, regular sleeping and eating patterns, adaptable to change and not easily upset. 40%
Slow to warm up: less cheery, predictable and adaptable. Don’t like new experiences. 15%
Difficult; glum, erratic sleepers and eaters, resistant to change, irritable 10%
35% of babies are combinations of all three

22. Social and emotional development
Attachment
The close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and caregivers.
By 6-8 months most babies will show a preference for the primary caregiver and protest when separated
Separation Anxiety
Emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from those people they have formed an attachment with.

23. Social and emotional development
1. Harry Harlow's surrogate mother research with monkeys demonstrated the importance of contact comfort.
2. Attachment style
a. Secure attachment means the infant seeks proximity, contact and interaction with the caregiver after separation.
b. Insecure attachment means the infant cannot be calmed or ignores the caregiver after separation.
3. Stranger anxiety peaks at about 6 months; separation anxiety peaks at about 18 months.

24. INFANCY: Cognitive development
1. Infants show a preference for face-Iike patterns.
2. Visual cliff experiments suggest that infants perceive depth by the time they are able to crawl.
These also demonstrate the influence of other people’s reactions on behaviour.

25. Childhood and Adolescence

26. I. Childhood A. Physical Development
1. More extensive neural networks continue to develop in the brain.
2. Growth rate continues to decline.
B. Social development
1. Interaction with the environment provides a sense of gender identity.
2. A greater sense of independence develops as peer relationships begin td become more important.
C. Cognitive development continues at a rapid rate. There are advances in the areas of
1. Learning
2. Language
3. Thinking skills

27. Feral Children 1
Feral Children 2
Feral Children 3
Feral Children 4
Feral Children 5
Genie
Child of Rage

28. II. Adolescence A. Physical/sexual development-puberty
B. Social development
1. Peer groups take on an increasingly important role.
2. Opposite-sex relationships gradually become less recreational and more intimate.
C. Cognitive development
1. Capability for logical, hypothetical and introspective thinking develops.
2. Growing awareness of one's own mental processes develops-metacognition.
D. Adolescent development relates to many important societal problems, such as suicide, teen pregnancy and eating disorders.

29. Adult and Later Years

30. I. Adulthood A. Physical changes
1. Abilities peak and begin a gradual (1 percent a year) decline.
2. Women undergo menopause with its hormonal and reproductive changes.
B. Social changes center around such issues as:
1. Mate selection
2. Parenting
3. Career selection
C. Cognitive changes vary significantly with some people showing declines and others not.
1. Reaction time appears to decline.
2. Some adults show a decline in memory.

31. II. Later years A. Physical changes B. Social issues include:
1. There is a general decline in muscle tone and sensory abilities.
2. Senile dementia and Alzheimer's disease are two disorders that may develop.
B. Social issues include:
1. Retirement
2. Social isolation, which may be caused by loss of spouse and others, lack of mobility and declining health
C. Cognitive declines are likely to continue.

32. Piaget, Kohlberg and Erikson
Important Developmental Psychologists
Piaget, Kohlberg and Erikson

33. I. Piaget's theory of cognitive development
Essential Processes
a. Cognitive structures/schema are the means by which humans acquire and apply knowledge about their world.
b. Assimilation is the use of available cognitive structures to gain new information.
c. Accommodation is the process of modifying cognitive structures in the face of newly realized complexities in the environment.

34. A. Sensorimotor stage, birth to 18 months
2. Developmental achievements
a. Circular reactions are repetitive motions babies engage in as they gradually learn to explore their environment nonreflexively.
b. Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when hidden from view.

35. B.Preoperational stage, 18 months to 6 years
1. Characteristics
a. Egocentrism is a limited ability to comprehend a situation from a perspective one has not experienced.
b. Animism is the tendency to attribute life to inanimate things.
c. Artificialism is the tendency to believe everything is the product of human action.
2. Developmental achievements
a. Symbolic representation and language
b. Readiness for operational thought

36. C. Concrete-operational stage, 6 years to early adolescence
1. Characteristics
a. Use of simple logic
b. Use of simple mental manipulations
c. Decline in egocentrism
2. Developmental achievements
a. Conservation is the principle that matter does not increase or decrease because of a change in form.
b. Reversibility is the understanding that mathematical operations and other actions can be undone.
d. Decentration : ability to focus on more than one aspect of a problem at once

37. D. Formal-operations stage, adolescence and adulthood
1. Characteristics
a. Hypothetical/ What if thinking? and deductive reasoning How or Why did this happen ?
b. Propositional logic: If this …then that…
c. Abstract thought: Symbolism, discussing Big Ideas
2. Developmental achievement indicates a readiness for adult intellectual tasks.
3. Piaget believed that not all adolescents or adults achieve formal operational reasoning ability.

38. Kohlberg Theory of Moral Development Heinz’s Dilemma

39. Heinz’s Dilemma
Heinz's wife was near death, and her only hope was a drug that had been discovered by a pharmacist who was selling it for an exorbitant price.
The drug cost $20,000 to make, and the pharmacist was selling it for $200,000.
Heinz could only raise $50,000 and insurance wouldn't make up the difference.
He offered what he had to the pharmacist, and when his offer was rejected, Heinz said he would pay the rest later.
Still the pharmacist refused. In desperation, Heinz considered stealing the drug.
Would it be wrong for him to do that?

40. Kohlberg:
Moral development: The ability to tell right from wrong and behave accordingly.
Kohlberg believed that there were levels and 6 stages in the development of moral behaviour.
Kohlberg studied Piaget and tried to apply his ideas to morality.

41. A. Preconventional level : toddler and preschool
Stage 1:Right and wrong are determined by what is punished,
so a child does the right thing to avoid something bad.
Stage 2, Right and wrong are determined by what is rewarded
So a child does the right thing in order to get a something good

42. B. Conventional level: school age
Stage 3, Right and wrong are determined by the approval or disapproval of the people close to us
We want our loved ones to see us as good
Stage 4, Right and wrong are determined by society's rules and laws which should be obeyed at all times
We do what’s right because it’s the law even if it could hurt our close friends and family

43. C. Postconventional level : begins in teens but may never be attained
Stage 5, There are general rule about what is right and wrong but sometimes exceptions need to be made
Stage 6, Each individual must have their own moral code.
Right and wrong are characterized by universal ethical principles that emphasize equality and justice for all people, not just the ones close to us.

44. Issues
It is not unusual for a person to be operating on more than one level depending on the situation.
These stages tend to represent “Western cultural values of individual human rights” and are not always the same across the globe.
Some believe that Kohlberg did not do enough research on the differences between men and women

45. It appears that males are more interested in the morality of justice: Is this fair? and
women are more interested in the morality of care: How will this affect other people?

48. http://www.cbc.ca/player/Shows/Shows/Doc+Zo ne/2008-09/ID/1233752062/ LIARS
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49. Erik Erikson: The Life-Span Approach

50. Vocabulary
CRISIS: the developmental challenge that must be met at each stage
Basic Strength: the personality characteristics and beliefs that derive from successful resolution of crisis in each stage

51. Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development
8 successive stages over the lifespan
The result of each crisis must be met adaptively or maladaptively. If the child responds
adaptively: s/he will acquire strengths needed for next developmental stage
maladaptively: s/he is less likely to be able to adapt to later problems

52. II. The stages A. Trust versus mistrust — infants
B. Autonomy versus shame and doubt — toddlers
C. Initiative versus guilt — young children
D. Industry versus inferiority — older children
E. Identity versus role confusion — adolescents
F. Intimacy versus isolation — young adults
G. Generativity versus stagnation — adults

53. Stage1CRISIS: Basic Trust vs. Mistrust
Birth to age 1
Totally dependent on others
Caregiver meets needs: child develops trust
Caregiver does not meet needs: child develops mistrust
Basic strength: Hope
Belief our desires will be satisfied
Feeling of confidence

54. Stage 2 CRISIS: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Ages 1-3
Child able to exercise some degree of choice
Child’s independence is thwarted: child develops feelings of self-doubt, shame in dealing with others
Basic Strength: Will
Determination to exercise freedom of choice in face of society’s demands

55. Stage 3 CRISIS: : Initiative vs. Guilt
Ages 3-5
Child expresses desire to take initiative in activities
Parents punish child for initiative: child develops feelings of guilt that will affect self-directed activity throughout life
Basic strength: Purpose
Courage to envision and pursue goals

56. Stage 4 CRISIS: Industriousness vs. Inferiority
Ages 6-11
Child develops cognitive abilities to enable in task completion (school work, play)
Parents/teachers do not support child’s efforts: child develops feelings of inferiority and inadequacy
Basci strength: Competence
Exertion of skill and intelligence in pursuing and completing tasks

57. Stages 1-4 Stages 5-8 Largely determined by others (parents, teachers)
Individual has more control over environment
Individual responsibility for crisis resolution in each stage

58. Stage 5 CRISIS: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Ages 12-18
Form ego identity: self-image
Strong sense of identity: face adulthood with certainty and confidence
Identity crisis: confusion of ego identity
Basic strength: Fidelity
Emerges from cohesive ego identity
Sincerity, genuineness, sense of duty in relationships with others

59. Stage 6 CRISIS: : Intimacy vs. Isolation
Ages (approximately)
Undertake productive work and establish intimate relationships
Inability to establish intimacy leads to social isolation
Basic strength: Love
Mutual devotion in a shared identity
Fusing of oneself with another person

60. Stage 7 CRISIS: : Generativity vs. Stagnation
Ages (approximately)
Generativity: Active involvement in teaching/guiding the next generation
Stagnation involves not seeking outlets for generativity
Basic strength: Care
Broad concern for others
Need to teach others

61. Stage 8 CRISIS: : Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Ages 55+
Evaluation of entire life
Integrity: Look back with satisfaction
Despair: Review with anger, frustration
Basic strength: Wisdom
Detached concern with the whole of life

62. III. Critique of Erikson
A. There is no agreed-upon set of measures for the various stages.
B. The stages imply a rigidity of development that may not exist.
C. The theory may not reflect differences in personality development between men and women.