1. 7. Alkyl Halides

2. What Is an Alkyl Halide
These are compounds containing a halogen bonded to a carbon atom.
The Frog

3. What Is an Alkyl Halide
These are compounds containing a halogen bonded to a carbon atom.

4. Naming Alkyl Halides Identify the longest continuous carbon chain
It must contain any double or triple bond if present
Number from end nearest any substituent (alkyl or halogen)
If any multiple bonds are present, number from end closest to these

5. Naming with Multiple Halides
If more than one of the same kind of halogen is present, use prefix di, tri, tetra
If there are several different halogens, number them and list them in alphabetical order

6. Naming if Two Halides or Alkyl Are Equally Distant from Ends of Chain
Begin at the end nearer the substituent whose name comes first in the alphabet

7. Many Alkyl Halides That Are Widely Used Have Common Names
Chloroform
Carbon tetrachloride
Methylene chloride
Methyl iodide
Trichloroethylene

8. Structure of Alkyl Halides
C-X bond is longer as you go down periodic table
C-X bond is weaker as you go down periodic table
The most important aspect of alkyl halides is the polarity of the C--X bond. As the halogen atom is more electronegative than the carbon, the C--X bond is polarized in such a way that the carbon atom has a partially positive charge while the halogen possesses a partial negative charge.

9. Preparing Alkyl Halides
The most effective means of preparing an alkyl halide is from addition of HCl, HBr, HI to alkenes to give Markovnikov product (see Alkenes chapter)
Alkyl dihalides are prepared from anti addition of bromine (Br2) or chlorine (Cl2)

10. Another Method of Prepping Alkyl Halides is the Free Radical Halogenation of Alkanes
This is a generally a poor method of alkyl halide prep because mixtures of products invariably result.
This reaction does not stop at the monochlorination stage but may continue to give dichloro, trichloro and even tetrachloro products.
Furthermore alkanes having more than one kind of hydrogen give more than one kind of monochlorination product in addition to the polychlorination products

11. Mechanism For the Radical Halogenation of Methane

12. Relative Reactivity
Based on quantitative analysis of reaction products, we can calculate a relative reactivity order
As this reaction is a Radical Reaction the order parallels the stability order of alkyl radicals

13. Preparing Alkyl Halides from Alcohols
Reaction of tertiary C-OH with HX is fast and effective
Add HCl or HBr gas into ether solution of tertiary alcohol

15. Preparation of Alkyl Halides from Primary and Secondary Alcohols
Specific reagents are needed to conver primary and secondary alcohols into the corresponding alkyl halides
Thionyl chloride converts 10 and 20 alcohols into alkyl chlorides (SOCl2 : ROH  RCl)
Phosphorus tribromide converts 10 and 20 alcohols into alkyl bromides (PBr3: ROH  RBr)

16. Reactions of Alkyl Halides: Grignard Reagents
Reaction of RX with Mg in ether or THF
Product is RMgX – an organometallic compound (alkyl-metal bond)
R is alkyl 1°, 2°, 3°, aryl, alkenyl
X = Cl, Br, I

17. Reactions of Grignard Reagents
Many useful reactions
RMgX behaves as R- (adds to any positive carbon - for instance: (C=O)
RMgX + H3O+  R-H

18. Reactions of Alkyl Halides: Nucleophilic Substitutions and Eliminations

19. The Reaction of Nucleophiles (Bases) with Alkyl Halides
For the most part, these reactions will be nucleophilic substitution reactions in which the nucleophile substitutes for the halogen in the alkyl halide. We will also look at base induced elimination of HX from alkyl halides to form alkenes 
Nucleophilic substitution reactions- these are the most common characteristic reactions of alkyl halides. Nucleophilic substitution reactions are predicated on the electrophilic nature of the alkyl halide. +
Base + +

20. Structure of Alkyl Halides
C-X bond becomes longer as you go down periodic table
C-X bond is weaker as you go down periodic table
The most important aspect of alkyl halides is the polarity of the C--X bond. As the halogen atom is more electronegative than the carbon, the C--X bond is polarized in such a way that the carbon atom has a partially positive charge while the halogen possesses a partial negative charge.
Nu-

21. The Nature of Nucleophiles
The electron rich nucleophiles can be any chemical species that has an unshared pair of electrons and/or possibly a negative charge

22. Mechanisms of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
The determination of reaction rates and, more importantly, dependence of those rates on the concentration of reactant(s) can be very useful in the determination of reaction mechanisms.  
Reaction rates studies have shown that there are two types of mechanisms possible for Nucleophilic Substitution reactions(N.S. reactions). These two mechanisms are referred to as SN2 andSN1 
SN2 means substitution nucleophilic bimolecular
SN1 means substitution nucleophilic unimolecular 

23. How to predict which Mechanism SN1 or SN2 will be followed in a reaction
The mechanism (SN1 or SN2) that applies to a particular reaction is primarily dependent upon the class of alkyl halide that is being reacted 
Oo+1o alkyl halides undergo N.S. reactions by the SN2 mechanism.
3o alkyl halide undergo N.S. reactions by the SN1 mechanism.
2o alkyl halides undergo N.S. reactions by the SN1 and/ or SN2 depending upon the reaction conditions. 

24. SN2 Mechanism
The SN2 Mechanism was deduced from reaction rate studies on 1o alkyl halides + methylhalides(00). These reaction rate studies showed that 1o and 00 alkyl halide undergo N.S. via a second order reaction rate. This means that the reaction rate was dependant upon the concentration of both reactants; the alkyl halide (R-X) and the Nucleophile (:Nu-). This statement can be expressed mathematically as:
Reaction rate = Rate of disappearance of starting materials
Reaction rate = k [CH3Br] [OH-]

25. Dependence of SN2 on Concentration of Reactants
The fact that the reaction rate for our example problem follows second order kinetics means that the reaction rate is dependant upon both CH3Br and :OH- . If we double, half, triple or quadruple the conc. of either reactant we will double, half, triple or quadruple the rate of the reaction.

26. Number of Steps in an SN2 Mechanism
This rate information is consistent with a one-step mechanism that requires a collision of the two reactants. Hence the SN2 mechanism was theorized to explain the rate data.  

27. Specifics of the SN2 Mechanism
The specifics of the SN2 mechanism involve the Nucleophile attacking the alkyl halide from the side 180o opposite the halogen
The stereochemistry of the SN2 reaction mechanism involves complete inversion of configuration at the central carbon. This inversion of configuration may be likened to the inversion of an umbrella in a strong wind.

28. SN2 Transition State
The transition state in an SN2 reaction has a planar arrangement of the carbon atom and the remaining three groups

29. Substrate (Alkyl Halide) Effect on SN2 Mechanism
Crowding of the transition state in SN2 reaction by bulky alkyl groups increases the energy of the transition state and lowers the reaction rate
The carbon atom in (a) bromomethane is readily accessible resulting in a fast SN2 reaction ( low energy Transition State). The carbon atoms in (b) bromoethane (primary), (c) 2-bromopropane (secondary), and (d) 2-bromo-2-methylpropane (tertiary) are successively more hindered, resulting in successively slower SN2 reactions (higher energy Transition States)

30. Order of Reactivity in SN2
The more alkyl groups connected to the reacting carbon, the slower the reaction

31. Please Note How Varying the Reactant and Transition-state Energy Levels Effects the Rxn. Rate(G‡)
Higher reactant energy level (red curve) = faster reaction (smaller G‡).
Higher transition-state energy level (red curve) = slower reaction (larger G‡).

32. Steric Hindrance in an SN2 Rxn Raises Transition State Energy and Slows Rxn
Steric effects destabilize transition states

33. SN2 Mechanism and the Attacking Nucleophiles
ALL NUCLEOPHILES ARE NOT CREATED EQUAL!
Some nucleophiles are more nucleophilic than others. Their reaction rates with the same alkyl halide are faster. 
*Stronger Nucleophiles react faster in an SN2 reaction
Negative Nucleophiles result in a neutral organic product
Neutral Nucleophiles result in a positive organic product

34. What Determines the Strength of a Nucleophile?
1. When comparing nucleophiles that have the same attacking atom nucleophilicity usually increases as the basicity (tendency to take on a proton H+)of the nucleophile increases. Basicity can be roughly measured by the pKa values for the conjugate acid of the nucleophile. The ↑ pKa for the conjugate acid ↑ basicity for the base,↑ nucleophilicity for the base.
Nu H Nu H
The stronger the base the weaker is the Conj. Acid
Acid
Base
Conjugate Acid
7.0

35. Continued - What Determines the Strength of a Nucleophile?
2. Nucleophilicity usually increases as we go down a column of the periodic table. Thus HS:- is more nucleophilic than HO:- and the halide reactivity order is : I- > Br- > Cl-
3. Negatively charged nucleophiles are stronger than neutral ones. Thus OH- , SH- an CH3CH2O- are stronger that H2O,H2S and CH3CH2OH 

36. SN2 Mechanism and Leaving Groups
The leaving groups in an SN2 mechanism is usually the halide anion(:X-). 
The rate of SN2 reactions is also dependant upon the stability of the Leaving Groups. The more stable the Leaving Group the faster is the reaction (the lower is the Energy of the Transition State). 
The more stable the leaving group the less basic it is and consequently the lower is the pKa for its conjugate acid.

37. SN2 Reactions and the Solvent Effect
Most SN2 reactions are carried out in methanol or ethanol because they are inexpensive and easily removed after the reaction. These solvents , however, are not the best solvents to use. Both ethanol and methanol are capable of hydrogen bonding to the nucleophile, lowering the energy of the reactant, and consequently increasing the activation energy barrier,decreasing the reaction rate.

38. polar aprotic solvents
The Best SN2 Solvents
The best SN2 solvents are those that are incapable of Hydorgen bonding and yet are sufficiently polar to dissolve the polar nucleophilic reagent.
These solvents are collectively referred to as:
polar aprotic solvents

39. A Summary of SN2 Rxn. Characteristics
The rxn occurs with inversion of configuration
The rxn shows 2nd order kinetics-is a one step rxn
The effects of Substrate, Nucleophile, Leaving Group and Solvent are indicated by the following:

40. How to Predict Which Mechanism SN1 or SN2 Applies
The mechanism (SN1 or SN2) that applies to a particular reaction is primarily dependent upon the class of alkyl halide that is being reacted 
Oo+1o alkyl halides undergo N.S. reactions by the SN2 mechanism.
3o alkyl halide undergo N.S. reactions by the SN1 mechanism.
2o alkyl halides undergo N.S. reactions by the SN1 and/ or SN2 depending upon the reaction conditions. 

41. The SN1 Rxn. Mechanism
Reaction rate studies on the nucleophilic substitution of 3o alkyl halides in protic solvents revealed interesting facts. The reaction rate for these reactions was a first order process. That is to say the reaction rate was only dependent on the concentration of alkyl halide. Rxn Rate = k [RX] 
The concentration of the nucleophile does not appear in the rate expression! 
If the concentration of alkyl halide is doubled, halfed or quadrupled the reaction rate will double, half or quadruple. If, on the other hand, the concentration of nucleophile is changed the reaction rate will be unaffected
If the rate of this reaction does not depend upon the concentration of the Nucleophile this can only mean that:
1) the reaction mechanism involves more than one step
2) the slow step of the mechanism (rate determining step) does not involve the nucleophile
These observations and assumptions indicate that the alkyl halide is involved in a unimolecular rate determining step. In other words the alkyl halide must undergo some sort of spontaneous unimolecular reaction without assistance from the nucleophilic. The mechanism shown on the following slide accounts for these kinetic observations

42. The SN1 Rxn. Mechanism
. This mechanism is referred to as “ Substitution Nucleophic Unimolecular or SN1”.
The term unimolecule relates to the fact that the slow step (rate determining step) involves only one molecule, the alkyl halide.

43. The SN1 Rxn. And Substrate (Alkyl Halide)
Since the slow step of the SN1 reaction mechanism relates to the formation of the carbo-cation the reactivity of alkyl halide follows the stability order for carbo-cations; 1
SN1
SN2

44. Stereochemistry of the SN1 Reaction
The SN1 mechanism does not involve complete inversion of configuration, because the mechanism proceeds by way of a planar carbocation and once formed the nucleophile can attack the planar carbocation at either face. This leads to approx. 50% of product retaining its configuration and 50% being inverted. If we carry out an SN1 reaction on chiral starting material then our product must be a 50:50 mix of enantiomers- a racemic, optically inactive, mixture. Actually a 60% inverted and 40% retained configuration is observed because of ion pairs. See next slide for further clarification.

45. The SN1 Mechanism and the Leaving Group
In the discussion of SN2 reactivity we reasoned that the best leaving groups should be those that are the most stable anions (weakest bases)  
An identical reactivity order is formed for the SN1 reaction, since in both cases the leaving group is intimately involved in the rate limiting step.

46. The SN1 Mechanism and the Attacking Nucleophile
Unlike SN2 reactions, reactions that proceed by SN1 mechanism do not require a strong nucleophile. The SN1 reaction occurs though a rate limiting step in which the added nucleophile plays no kinetic role. The nucleophile does not enter into the reaction until after rate limiting production of carbocation has occurred 
See mechanism for this rxn on the next slide

48. SN1 Reaction Mechanism and the Solvent
Because SN1 reactions proceed, thru a carbocation intermediate, any factor that stabilizes the carbocation intermediate should increase the rate of the reaction (lower Activation Energy ). One factor that stabilizes the carbocation is solvation. Solvation refers to the interaction of the carbocating with the solvent molecules. If the solvent molecules are very polar this interaction is a stabilizing one as the solvent molecules decrease the energy of the carbocation intermediate and make it easier to form. The best solvents for SN1 reactions are H2O, alcohols and carboxylic acids. Polar protic solvents.

49. Alkyl Halides: Elimination
. Elimination reactions may occur as competing side reactions whenever one attempts a nucleophilic substitution reaction. Whenever a nucleophilic reagent (Lewis base) attacks an alkyl halide the nucleophile many replace the halide to give the substitution product and / or HX may be eliminated-from the alkyl halide to form the alkene. The product formed depend upon the exact nature of the reaction and on the reaction conditions.

50. Elimination Reactions
Elimination reactions can take place thru a variety of different mechanistic pathways. We will consider only the E2 mechanism 
The E2 ( for elimination, bimolecular) reaction is the most commonly occurring pathway for elimination. It is closely analogous to the SN2 mechanism. The rxn rate = k x [RX][Base] 
The essential feature of the E2 mechanism is that it is a one step process without intermediate. As the attacking base / nucleophile begins to abstract a proton from a carbon next to the leaving group, the C-H begins to break, a new carbon-carbon pi bond begins to form, and the leaving group begins to depart

51. Zaitsev’s Rule for Elimination Reactions (1875)
In the elimination of HX from an unsymmetrical alkyl halide, the more highly substituted alkene product predominates

52. Summary of Reactivity SN1,SN2, E2
We have examined three possible modes of reactions between an alkyl halide and a base / nucleophile, and you may well wonder how to predict what will happen in any given case. While it is difficult to provide definite answers there are some valuable generalization about what to expect 
1. Primary alkyl halides react by either SN2 or E2 mechanisms. The SN2 mechanism is highly favored under most conditions. The E2 mechanism is favored only when the nucleophile is a strong bulky base such as t-butoxide. T-butoxide is a strong base because it readily reacts with a proton to form t-butanol but it is too bulky to act as an SN2 nucleophile In such cases nucleophilic substitution (SN2) discouraged as bulk of the nucleophile prohibits an effective back side attack. Potassium t-butoxide is (CH3)3CO- K+
See next slide for example rxn
In such cases nucleophilic substitution (SN2) discouraged as bulk of the nucleophile prohibits an effective back side attack.

53. Two Different Modes of Rxn for primary alkyl halide

54. Summary of Reactivity SN1,SN2, E2
2. Secondary alkyl halides can react via any one of the three mechanism and chemists can often make one or the other pathway predominant by choosing appropriate reaction conditions. When the nucleophile is a strong base such as ethoxide (CH3CH2O-) hydroxide (0H-) or amide (NH2-) ion E2 elimination normally occurs 
Conversely, when the same 2o alkyl halide is treated with a polar aprotic solvent such as DMSO or HMPA and the nucleophile is a weak base, SN2 substitution usually occurs 

55. Summary of Reactivity SN1,SN2, E2
3. Tertiary Alkyl Halides- There can be made to react through 2 possible pathways- SN1, and E2. One of the two can be made to predominate if proper reaction conditions are chosen.When a 3o alkyl halide is treated with strong base/ strong nucleophile E2 predominate to the near exclusion of the other possibilities. Treating the 3o alkyl halide with a weak base/weak nucleophile leads primarily to the SN1 product