1. TISSUES

2. Cells Tissues Organs Organ systems Organism
Cells are not found by themselves; they’re with others. These are called tissues.
TISSUE: A group of cells, usually similar, which share a particular function.
ORGAN A group of tissues which share a particular function.
ORGAN SYSTEM: A group of organs which share a particular function (digestive system, nervous system).

3. Cell Differentiation
Through the process of cell differentiation, each cell develops a characteristic set of structural features.
Each cell has to contribute one piece toward the overall function of the organism, so that all the vital functions can be covered.
During differentiation, cells in nearby locations become able to work together.
After differentiation, cells do not change their function throughout their life cycle

4. TYPES OF TISSUES WE’LL DISCUSS:
EPITHELIUM: a sheet of cells that makes up the surface of the skin and also lines tubes in the body.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE: deep to the epithelium; supplies oxygen and nutrients to epithelium.
Fibrous (Proper) Connective Tissue
Special Connective Tissue (cartilage, bone, blood, muscles, nerves)
MUSCLE TISSUE: makes up muscles, and these cells are able to contract, unlike fibrous connective tissue. It is bound together by areolar connective tissue. (discussed in later lectures)
NERVOUS TISSUE: makes up brain and nerves (discussed in later lectures)

5. EPITHELIA: (plural form of epithelium): a sheet of cells that makes up the surface of the skin and also lines tubes in the body.
Function of epithelia:
The epithelial cells are the type of tissue that protects the underlying structures
What is the difference between epithelium and epidermis?
Epidermis is the outermost layer of skin. It consists of epithelial cells, but epithelium is also found in areas lining the tubes of the body (digestive, respiratory, urinary systems, etc)

6. Epithelium
Epithelium is the tissue that covers the outside of the body (the top layer of the skin), and it also lines the tubes within the body.
Digestive tract
Respiratory tract
Cardiovascular system
Urinary tract
Reproductive tract
Sweat glands and other exocrine glands

7. Microvilli
The presence of large numbers of microvilli on the exposed surfaces of epithelial cells indicates that this is the area where absorption and secretion take place.
These cells are transportation specialists.
They are probably located along portions of the digestive and urinary tracts

8. Kidney Sweat glands Trachea
The hollow space within each of these tubes is called a lumen.
The lumens are always lined by epithelial cells.
Kidney
Sweat glands
Trachea

9. Basement Membrane
All epithelia sit on top of connective tissue, and is connected to it by a BASEMENT MEMBRANE (which is not a cell membrane), made of protein fibers that connect to epithelium.
The only function of the basement membrane is to attach the epithelium to the connective tissue beneath it.
Epithelia get oxygen and nutrients from the blood vessels in the connective tissue beneath the basement membrane.

10. Special Characteristics of Epithelia
Figure 4.1

11. Epithelium Epithelium is always BIPOLAR:
APICAL SIDE: touches the lumen (inside heart, stomach, etc).
BASAL SIDE: touches the basement membrane

12. Classifications of Epithelia
Figure 4.2

13. SIMPLE EPITHELIUM SIMPLE EPITHELIUM has only one cell layer.
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM:
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED EPITHELIUM

14. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS (thin) EPITHELIUM
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS (thin) EPITHELIUM are flat cells that allow diffusion of materials between the cells.
This type of epithelium is in regions where a lot of diffusion is needed from one compartment to another, such as the lungs and a region in the kidney called the glomerulus.

15. Simple Squamous Epithelium
Found in the lungs
Figure 4.3a

16. Simple Squamous Epithelium
Found in the lungs
Found in the kidneys (glomerulus)

17. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM is cube shaped and is also found in areas where there is a lot of material going across from one compartment to another.
This cell type has plenty of room for organelles.
This epithelium is found in the intestines, and a region of the KIDNEY called the convoluted tubules, and places that need diffusion as well as room for cell organelles.

18. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Found in the kidneys (convoluted tubules)
Figure 4.3b

19. Tubules are simple cuboidal Glomerulus is simple squamous
KIDNEY
Tubules are simple cuboidal
Glomerulus is simple squamous

20. SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM is shaped like a column and are found in areas where the cells are needed for secretion and absorption (intestines).
When they are differentiated into GOBLET CELLS, they produce mucus.

21. Simple Columnar Epithelium
Figure 4.3c

22. PSEUDO-STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
PSEUDO-STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM is a single layer of cells that appears to be more than one layer thick, but it is not. The nucleus on one cell is at the top, and the nucleus of the next cell is at the bottom.
Pseudostratified epithelium always has cilia on its apical surface. Each cilium is a hair-like structure that moves back and forth to move material in a certain direction.
This type of epithelium needs goblet cells nearby to produce the mucus that contains the material to be swept. These cells will be found in the respiratory tract (the trachea), where the mucous catches the debris you inhale and the cilia sweeps the material up to your throat where you cough and swallow it.
Its only functions are protection and mucous production.

23. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
Found in the trachea
Figure 4.3d

24. A Cilium
Figure 4.8

25. STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM
STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM has more than one cell layer. The type of epithelium is named by the APICAL layer.
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM:
1) Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
2) Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium  
STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM

26. STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM: the type is named by the apical cells. Stratified squamous epithelium is found in regions of the body where there is a lot of abrasions or wear-and tear, and it is the most protective (it is the thickest).
1) KERATINIZED STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM has apical cells that contain a protein called keratin, which is waterproof. All of our dry skin is this type, and it is especially thick in the palms and soles. It is very good at resisting abrasions.
2) NON-KERATINIZED STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM does not have the keratin, so it will be moist skin, like what is found lining the mouth and esophagus.

27. Stratified Squamous Epithelium (keratinized)
Found in dry skin

28. Stratified Squamous Epithelium (non-keratinized)
Found in moist skin (mouth and esophagus)
Figure 4.3e

29. STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM usually consists of only two layers, and there is almost no diffusion between them.
It is found in sweat glands.

30. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
Found in sweat glands
Figure 4.3f

31. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
Found in Sweat Glands

32. STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM usually has just a few layers and this type of epithelium inhibits diffusion of materials.
It is relatively rare, providing protection along portions of the pharynx, urethra, and anus.

33. Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Figure 4.3g

34. TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM can stretch and change shape.
This type is what lines the urinary bladder and it looks like this as it goes from empty to full.

35. Transitional Epithelium
Found in the urinary bladder
Figure 4.3h

36. Connective Tissues Types of Connective Tissues
FIBROUS (PROPER) Connective tissues
SPECIAL CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Functions of Connective Tissues
Defend the body from invasion by microorganisms
Provide protection for delicate organs
Establish a structural framework for the body

37. FIBROUS (PROPER) Connective tissues
ADIPOSE (fat)
RETICULAR (lymph nodes)
LOOSE (aka AREOLAR; upper dermis)
DENSE
REGULAR (tendons and ligaments)
IRREGULAR (lower dermis and joint capsules)

38. Adipose ADIPOSE Main cell type is an adipocyte (stores fat) Functions:
Cushions organs
Food Storage
Insulation

39. Adipose Tissue
Figure 4.12c

40. Lipoma
These are benign fat nodules in the hypodermis, usually associated with high cholesterol levels. They are easily surgically excised (removed)

41. Liposarcoma
Patients usually note a deep seated mass in their soft tissue. Only when the tumor is very large do symptoms of pain or functional disturbances occur.
Most frequent in middle-aged and older adults (age 40 and above), liposarcomas are the second most common of all soft-tissue sarcomas . Annually 2.5 cases occur per million population.
The prognosis varies depending on the site of origin, the type of cancer cell, the tumor size, the depth, and proximity to lymph nodes. Well-differentiated liposarcomas treated with surgery and radiation have a low recurrence rate (about 10%) and rarely metastasize.

42. Why you got fat

43. Are you more drunk than you think?, http://fxn.ws/TqUdz9
Women have a higher fat-to-water ratio than men do.
A 150-pound man holds more water than a 150-pound woman; after one drink, the woman will have a higher concentration of booze in her blood. That leads to greater intoxication. And her liver has to work harder to metabolize that alcohol, prolonging her buzz. 
For every drink a woman has, it’s the equivalent of a drink and a half for a same-sized man.

44. Reticular Connective Tissue
Found in lymph node
Figure 4.12d

45. Reticular Connective Tissue

46. Loose Connective Tissue
LOOSE (AREOLAR) connective tissue
This is the least specialized connective tissue.
The main cell type in loose and dense connective tissue is a FIBROBLAST (a type of cell, not just a part of a cell). Fibroblasts are what make collagen and elastic fibers, and they also and repair wounds.
Areolar is common in areas just deep to epidermis (upper dermis).
It does NOT have much collagen as dense because it does not have many fibroblasts.

47. Areolar Connective Tissue
Found in dermis
Figure 4.12b

48. Dense Regular Connective Tissue
Dense regular and irregular connective tissue has lots of COLLAGEN FIBERS
Dense regular has more collagen than irregular.
Dense regular fibers have a pattern, and run in same direction
Even more strong than irregular, but only in one direction
Ligaments and tendons are dense regular CT.
Note: tendons are not muscle tissue; they are dense regular connective tissue.

49. Dense Regular Connective Tissue
Figure 4.12f

50. NOTE: If you get injured, you’d rather break a bone than tear a ligament, why?
The number of fibroblasts is the same, but the ligament has a lot more collagen to be made by each fibroblast.
And the blood supply to bone is much better than a ligament.

51. Dense Irregular DENSE IRREGULAR connective tissue
Has lots of COLLAGEN FIBERS
Fibers have irregular position; no pattern
Extremely strong in all directions
Found in areas of body where strength is needed (joint capsules and deeper layer of the dermis).

52. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
Found in joint capsules and dermis
Figure 4.12e

53. Scleroderma
Scleroderma is a chronic systemic autoimmune disease (primarily of the skin) characterized by fibrosis (or hardening), vascular alterations, and autoantibodies. There are two major forms:
Limited systemic sclerosis/scleroderma involves cutaneous manifestations that mainly affect the hands, arms, and face. It was previously called CREST syndrome in reference to the following complications: Calcinosis, Raynaud's phenomenon, Esophageal dysfunction, Sclerodactyly, and Telangiectasias. Additionally, pulmonary arterial hypertension may occur in up to one-third of patients and is the most serious complication for this form of scleroderma.
Diffuse systemic sclerosis/scleroderma is rapidly progressing and affects a large area of the skin and one or more internal organs, frequently the kidneys, esophagus, heart, and lungs. This form of scleroderma can be quite disabling. There are no treatments for scleroderma itself, but individual organ system complications are treated.

54. Scleroderma

55. Granuloma
A granuloma is an inflammation found in many diseases. It is a collection of immune cells known as macrophages.
Granulomas form when the immune system attempts to wall off substances that it perceives as foreign but is unable to eliminate.
Such substances include infectious organisms such as bacteria and fungi as well as other materials such as keratin and suture fragments.

56. Lightning Strike

57. Special Connective Tissue
Cartilages
Hyaline cartilage (most joints)
Elastic cartilage (ear)
Fibrocartilage (intervertebral discs)
Bone tissues
Compact bone (shaft of long bones)
Spongy bone (ends of long bones)
Blood
Muscles (discussed more in later lectures)
Nerves (discussed more in later lectures)

58. Cartilage There are three types of cartilage: Cartilages
Main cell type is CHONDROCYTE
Extracellular matrix is dense collagen; almost solid, very rigid
Avascular (no blood vessels. Torn cartilage won’t heal).
There are three types of cartilage:
HYALINE CARTILAGE
ELASTIC CARTILAGE
FIBROCARTILAGE

59. Hyaline Cartilage
Found in most joints
Figure 4.12g

60. Hyaline Cartilage
Hyaline Cartilage

61. Hyaline Cartilage

62. Elastic Cartilage (elastin fibers)
Found in the ear
Figure 4.12h

63. Elastic Cartilage Lacunae Elastic fibers Chondrocytes
Found in the outer ear

64. Elastic cartilage
Lacunae
Chondrocytes
Elastic fibers
Outer Ear

65. Found in intervertebral discs; resists compression
Fibrocartilage
Found in intervertebral discs; resists compression

66. Fibrocartilage
Lacunae
Chondrocytes
Collagen fibers
Vertebral discs

67. Fibrocartilage
Lacunae
Chondrocytes
Collagen fibers
Vertebral discs

68. Bone Bone tissues Main cell type is OSTEOCYTE = “bone cell”
Extracellular matrix is solid, full of minerals (instead of fluid)
Minerals are: Calcium carbonate and Calcium phosphate (same as limestone)

69. Bone Tissue: Compact Bone
Found in shaft of long bones
Figure 4.12j

70. Found in ends of
long bones
Spongy Bone

71. Blood Blood tissue Main cell type is ERYTHROCYTE
Extracellular matrix is PLASMA (no elastin or collagen because it would form clots)

72. Blood Tissue
Figure 4.12k

73. Types of Membranes
Synovial
Mucous
Serous

74. Synovial Membranes
This membrane lines the inside of fluid-filled joints.
The cellular layers are incomplete, with gaps between adjacent cells to allow the fluid to escape into the joint to serve as a cushion.

75. Mucous Membranes
Mucous membranes are covered in epithelium, which are involved in absorption and secretion.
They line cavities that are exposed to the external environment and internal organs.
They are located at the nostrils, the mouth, the lips, the eyelids, the ears, the genital area, and the anus.

76. Serous Membranes Serous membranes secrete a watery fluid.
The fluid reduces friction from muscles or organs rubbing against each other. Its major function is to produce tiny amounts of watery liquid on their opposing surfaces to reduce friction.
The serous membrane covering the heart is the pericardium. Inflammation here is called pericarditis.
The serous membrane surrounding the lungs is the pleura. Inflammation here is called pleuritis.
The serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity is the peritoneum. Inflammation here is called peritonitis.

77. Another way to classify epithelium
1. MOIST EPITHELIUM: there are two types:
a. MUCOSA is the cell type that produces mucous. Therefore, pseudo-stratified columnar epithelium is a mucous epithelium, or a mucosa.
b. SEROSA is an epithelium that has watery secretions on the surface. This is found in sweat glands.
2. DRY EPITHELIUM is keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

78. Collagen
COLLAGEN
This is a type of fiber that is found in all connective tissues (other than blood).
It gives connective tissues an elastic consistency.
It has very little blood supply, so it does not regenerate well.
It does not interfere with diffusion of materials from one area to another; it just provides support for connective tissues.

79. Collagen fibers

80. Types of Glands Exocrine Gland Endocrine Gland
Secretes substances into a duct (a tunnel) and then excretes it into the lumen or onto the skin (e.g. sweat, oil)
Endocrine Gland
Secretes substances into the blood to be transported to another part of the body, where it is used (e.g. hormones). Endocrine glands are ductless. We will discuss endocrine glands in a separate lecture.

81. Exocrine Glands Classification of Exocrine Glands Type of secretion
Method of secretion
Structure

82. Exocrine Glands EXOCRINE GLANDS
1. Classified based on the type of secretion
a. SEROUS GLANDS secrete water, as found in sweat glands.
b. MUCOUS GLANDS secrete mucous, as found in goblet cells
c. MIXED GLANDS secrete mucous and water as found in salivary glands.
d. OIL GLANDS secrete waxy and oily substances, as found in sebaceous glands and ear wax.

83. Glands 2. Classified by the method of secretion
Merocrine (Eccrine) glands
Apocrine glands
Holocrine glands

84. Merocrine Gland Exocytosis
2. Classified by the method of secretion a. MEROCRINE (Eccrine) GLANDS produce a secretion by a process called EXOCYTOSIS. Example is sweat gland
Cell of merocrine gland
Vesicle with green secretion inside
The vesicle moves to and binds with the cell membrane, pops open and releases the secretion

85. Merocrine Gland Functions
Thermoregulation
Inhibiting the growth of bacteria on the skin
Excretion of water, electrolytes, and some drugs
They do not function as a lubricant for the skin.

86. Apocrine Glands
b. APOCRINE GLANDS accumulate material in the apical section, the top of the cell breaks off, and the material is released. The cells that broke down will grow again. Examples are the mammary glands and oil glands associated with pubic hairs. Apocrine glands are also considered to be a type of sweat gland, but only in the axilla and pubic regions.

87. Holocrine Glands
c. HOLOCRINE GLANDS are those where the entire cell breaks off with all the contents inside, such as sebaceous (oil) glands. After the cell breaks off, the other cells move in quickly and close up the gap.

88. Exocrine Glands
3. Classified by their structure (what they look like)
a. UNICELLULAR GLANDS, for example a GOBLET CELL.
Goblet cells are found in the trachea and secrete mucous to trap debris; then you cough it up.

89. GOBLET CELL

90. Glands b. MULTICELLULAR GLANDS Alveolar Simple alveolar
Compound alveolar (mammary glands)
Tubular
Simple tubular (sweat glands)
Compound tubular

91. Multicellular Glands
Alveolar Tubular

92. Types of Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Figure 4.6

93. Brown Recluse Spider
They like dark spaces & woodpiles.  Also cool areas in the attic

94. Day 3

95. Day 5

96. Day 6

97. Day 9

98. Day 10

99. Brown Recluse Spider

100. Get a Venom Extractor Kit

101. Get a Venom Extractor Kit