1. Bullying: A Perspective from Educational Psychology
Dr Victoria Lewis
Senior Practitioner Educational Psychologist
&
Academic and Professional Tutor
School of Psychology
University of Nottingham

2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
To consider definitions of bullying and the prevalence of bullying in schools
To consider bullying as a social phenomenon
To consider potential implications of bullying in schools
To consider the role of educational psychologists in facilitating anti-bullying interventions in schools
Dr Victoria Lewis

3. ACTIVITY 1: QUESTIONS ABOUT BULLYING
What is bullying, and what distinguishes it from other problem behaviours in schools (for example, aggressive behaviour displayed between peers)?
What is the prevalence of bullying behaviour in schools?
What are the most common forms of bullying experienced by children in schools?
Why is bullying sometimes classed as a social phenomenon?
What are some of the effects of bullying?
What can psychology offer to the study of bullying / anti-bullying strategies in schools?
Dr Victoria Lewis

4. WHAT IS BULLYING?
Definitions
“Bullying is a subtype of aggressive behaviour in which the perpetrator exerts power over a weaker victim through various means including physical size or strength, age or psychological advantage, and which is repeated over time”
Vaillancourt, Hymel & McDougall (2003)
“Systematic abuse of power which repeatedly and deliberately (Smith & Sharp 1994) harms others (Hazler 1996)”
Dr Victoria Lewis

5. Core Elements Imbalance of Power Intentional Repeated over Time
Orpinas & Horne (2006)
Dr Victoria Lewis

6. What Bullying Isn’t
“ An odd fight or quarrel between children of approximately equal strength is not classed as bullying”
Sharp & Smith (1994)
Dr Victoria Lewis

7. Direct-Physical – kicking, hitting, pushing, taking belongings
Types of Bullying
Direct-Physical – kicking, hitting, pushing, taking belongings
Direct-Verbal – name-calling, taunting, mocking, making threats
Indirect-Relational – excluding people from groups, deliberately ignoring, gossiping, spreading rumours
Dr Victoria Lewis

8. THE PREVALENCE OF BULLYING IN SCHOOLS
UK Study of 230 pupils (6 secondary schools, 6 primary schools)
51% year 5 pupils thought bullying was a big problem or quite a big problem in their school
51% reported they had been bullied that term
28% year 8 pupils thought bullying was a ‘big problem’ or ‘quite a big problem’ in their school
Oliver & Candappe (2002)
Dr Victoria Lewis

9. Study of 6000 pupils in Sheffield schools (24 schools)
27% primary school pupils and 20% secondary school pupils said they had been bullied that term
Whitney & Smith (1993)
Dr Victoria Lewis

10. 3 media based surveys of 7,066 boys and girls aged 13-19
Up to 12-13% had experienced severe bullying (time base unspecified)
The figure rose to 25% for children from minority ethnic groups
Another 42-47% felt they had been less severely bullied
About half the pupils were bullied by a group
Katz, Buchanan & Bream (2001)
Dr Victoria Lewis

11. 19% said they had bullied others sometimes or more often
US study of students
17% reported having been bullied sometimes or more often during the school year
19% said they had bullied others sometimes or more often
6% reported both bullying others and being a victim of bullying
Nansel (2001)
Dr Victoria Lewis

12. COMMON FORMS OF BULLYING
Name-calling was the most prevalent
Social isolation was also common
Physical aggression was less common
Similar levels of bullying reported by boys and girls
There was a higher incidence among black and asian students (33%) compared with white (26%) and other ethnic groups (30%)
Oliver & Candappe (2002)
Dr Victoria Lewis

13. Relational bullying was more common among girls (Crick & Nelson 2002)
Verbal and relational forms of bullying occur more often than physical bullying (Rivers & Soutter 1996)
Verbal bullying was twice as common as physical bullying (Craig & Pepler 1997)
Relational bullying was more common among girls (Crick & Nelson 2002)
Dr Victoria Lewis

14. Bullying using electronic devices such as mobile phones and computers
Cyber Bullying
Bullying using electronic devices such as mobile phones and computers
92 students aged from 14 London schools completed a survey on bullying. 22% had experienced cyber bullying at least once. 6.6% had experienced being bullied in this way in the previous two months
33% of the sample who had experienced cyber bullying had told no one about it
Anti-Bullying Alliance (2005) Videos)
Dr Victoria Lewis

15. Psychological Theories of Bullying Socio-Cognitive Deficits
Social Learning Theory
Attachment Theory
Social Dominance Theory
Ecological Systems Theory
Frederickson (2008)
Dr Victoria Lewis

16. BULLYING AS A ‘SOCIAL PHENOMENA’
Bullying frequently occurs in the presence of peers but the actions of those peers more often encourage the bullying than stop it (Craig & Pepler 1997)
An audience to bullying is consistent and may provide the person doing the bullying with positive reinforcement (Olweus 1991)
The increases in arousal levels when watching bullying may encourage children who would normally not act aggressively, to become involved (Olweus 1991)
Dr Victoria Lewis

17. Peers were involved in 85% of playground bullying
Peer Involvement
Peers were involved in 85% of playground bullying
54% of peers’ time was spent reinforcing bullying by passively watching
21% of peers’ time was spent actively supporting bullies
25% of peers’ time was spent intervening on behalf of victims and 75% of these peer interventions were successful in stopping bullying
O’Connell et al (1990)
Dr Victoria Lewis

18. ‘The invisible engine in the cycle of bullying’
Bystanders
‘The invisible engine in the cycle of bullying’
Twemlow (2001)
A person who does not actively become involved in a situation where someone else requires help (Clarkson 1996)
As the number of bystanders increases the likelihood that someone will intervene to stop the situation decreases. This is known as the diffusion of responsibility (Latane & Darley 1970)
Dr Victoria Lewis

19. Bystander Effect
May be a diffusion of responsibility… Leaving it to others to sort out?
They may find it difficult to support in reality… Lack of effective strategies?
May be concerned about their own safety and preservation… They may fear being bullied themselves?
They may not understand bullying or have the skills to intervene effectively
Craig & Peplers (1997)
Dr Victoria Lewis

20. Assistant – joins in and assists the person doing the bullying
Roles in Bullying
‘Bully’
Assistant – joins in and assists the person doing the bullying
Reinforcer – does not actively attack the victim but provides positive feed back to the person bullying
Defender – shows anti-bullying behaviour – comforting the victim; taking sides with them and trying to stop the bullying
Outsider – stays away not taking sides with anyone - allows bullying to continue by silent approval
Victim
Salmivalli (1996; 1999)
Dr Victoria Lewis

21. Typical Characteristics of those who Bully Strong need to dominate
Impulsive and easily angered
Defiant and aggressive towards other adults
Shows little empathy
Physically stronger (if male)
Olweus 1990
Not low self-esteem – those doing the bullying may be among the most popular or socially connected children (Olweus 1991)
Not unpopular (Rodkin 2000)
Dr Victoria Lewis

22. QUESTIONING THE NOTION OF A BULLY
Not a personality trait but a response to a set of circumstances (Rivers & Soutter 1996)
1 in 5 children who bully may have been bullied themselves
Setting events are a very important determinant Soutter & McKenzie (2000)
Dr Victoria Lewis

23. Typical Characteristics of those Victimised
Cautious, sensitive, quiet, withdrawn, shy
Depressed
Often do not have single good friend
Physically weaker (if male)
Olweus 1990
The pupil may have a particular characteristic that makes them stand out:
…They may have special educational needs (O’Moore & Hilley 1989)
…Be of a minority community (Sharp & Smith 1994)
…May not fit gender stereotypes (Shakeshaft et al 1995)
Dr Victoria Lewis

24. EFFECTS OF BULLYING Bullying can cause emotional and physical harm
Affect learning and attendance
Young people who commit physical bullying at an early age are more likely to become involved in violent crime at a later age
Dr Victoria Lewis

25. WHAT CAN BE DONE ABOUT BULLYING IN SCHOOLS?
Prevention
Reaction
Support
Dr Victoria Lewis

26. Government Initiatives
Anti-Bullying Interventions
Individual
Group
Organisational
Sharp (1999)
Government Initiatives
SEAL (Social and Emotional aspects of Learning 2007)
Don’t Suffer in Silence (2003)
Dr Victoria Lewis

27. Pupils Preferred Responses to Bullying Friendships
Avoidance strategies
Stand up for themselves
Oliver & Candappe (2002)
Dr Victoria Lewis

28. Anti-Bullying Interventions with Groups or Individuals
Remedy externalising problems in those who have shown bullying behaviour or on the internalising problems displayed by victims
For example, social skills training / assertiveness training / anger management programmes
Dr Victoria Lewis

29. Individual Pupil Responses to Bullying
Aggressive – escalates the problem
Passive unconstructive – ignores the behaviour but meets the bully’s demands
Passive constructive – exiting quickly from a bullying situation and seeking support from peers (may disable a victim)
Assertive – a pupil calmly refuses to comply with demands and fails to reinforce bullying behaviour (most successful)
Sharp & Cowie (1994)
Dr Victoria Lewis

30. Social Skills Training Body language and eye contact
Assertive statements
Resisting manipulations and threats
Responses to name calling
Enlisting support
Sharp et al (1994)
Dr Victoria Lewis

31. BREAKING THE SILENCE
Children may fail to inform teachers they are experiencing bullying (Craig et al 2000). This is especially likely where pupils are older (Naylor et al 2001)
Telling teachers / parents was felt to be risky. Many pupils felt it would be easy to talk to a friend (68% Y5; 71% Y8) (Oliver & Candappe (2002)
Half of children who admitted to having been bullied in a private and anonymous questionnaire, said they had not told anyone about it, at home or at school (Whitney & Smith 1993)
Over a two year period, those who had stopped being victims had talked to someone about it (67%) more often than those who had stayed victims (41%) Smith and others (2004)
Dr Victoria Lewis

32. PEER SUPPORT Befriending Circle of Friends Circle Time
Conflict resolution
Peer Tutoring
Peer Mentoring
Peer Counselling
Peer Mediation
Co-operative Teaching
Dr Victoria Lewis

33. Involving students directly in solving bullying problems
Peer Mentoring
Involving students directly in solving bullying problems
Peer mentors work with children who may be vulnerable (for example, in the dining hall); act as befrienders or contact points
Co-operative Teaching Arrangements
16 classes in 2 primary schools
Small reduction in reported bullying
Naylor & Cowie (1994)
Dr Victoria Lewis

34. PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACHES
No Blame/ Support Group Approach (Young 1998)
Method of Shared Concern (Pikas 2002; Rigby 2005)
Dr Victoria Lewis

35. No Blame Approach Interview with bullied pupil
Arrange a meeting for all pupils who are involved
Explain the problem
Share responsibility
Identify solutions
Let pupils take action themselves
Review
Maines & Robinson (1992)
Dr Victoria Lewis

36. Pikas Method of Shared Concern Stage 1 – meeting with group members
Stage 2 – Meeting with person who has been bullied
Stage 3 – Further meetings with group members
Stage 4 – Further meetings with all the group members
Pikas (1987)
Dr Victoria Lewis

37. WHOLE SCHOOL APPROACHES
Sheffield Anti-Bullying Initiative
A whole-school approach
23 schools (16 primaries, 7 secondaries)
Led to an increase in the number of pupils saying they hadn't been bullied – most evident in primary schools
Smith (1999)
Dr Victoria Lewis

38. Olweus (1991) Bullying Prevention Programme
Creating a school, and ideally a home environment characterised by:
Warmth, positive interest and involvement from adults
Firm limits on unacceptable behaviour
Consistent application of non-punitive, non-physical sanctions for unacceptable behaviour
Adults who act as authorities and role-models
Levels of Intervention:
School
Classroom
Individual
Substantial reductions in reported bullying in Norway – typically 30-50%
Dr Victoria Lewis

39. Programme Evaluations Some interventions showed decreased bullying
Results were not always consistent
Social skills groups reduced bullying in 1 in 4
Mentoring reduced bullying in 1 of 1 case
Whole school approaches decreased bullying in 7 of 10 cases
Vreeman & Carrol (2007)
Dr Victoria Lewis

40. CONCLUSIONS Bullying is highly prevalent in schools
Intervention rates may sometimes be low
There may be insufficient acknowledgement of indirect forms of bullying
Children and young people may be reluctant to report bullying
Schools need to target the role of bystanders in the intervention
Parents and carers can help rehearse effective strategies with children
Reid et al (2004)
Dr Victoria Lewis

41. Dr Victoria Lewis

42. IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGISTS
Involvement in training and project work
Research into anti-bullying interventions
Apply Psychology to understand the type of bullying and develop systematised interventions based on these understandings
Encourage anti-bullying intervention to take place at different levels, involving the whole school community (including parents and carers, pupils themselves and midday supervisors)
Dr Victoria Lewis

43. REFERENCES
Clarkson, P. (1996). The Bystander. London: Whurr Publishers
Cowie, H. & Sharp, S. (1994). Tackling Bullying through the curriculum: Insights and Perspectives. London: Routledge
Craig, W; Pepler, D; & Atlas, R. (2000). Observations of bullying in the playground and in the classroom. School Psychology International. 21 (1). Pp 22-36
Crick, N.R. & Nelson, D.A. (2002). Relational and physical victimisation within friendships: Nobody told me there’d be friends like these. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 30. Pp
Frederickson, N. & Cline, T (2002). Special Educational Needs, Inclusion and Diversity: A Textbook. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Frederickson, N. Miller, A; & Cline, T. (2008). Educational Psychology: Topics in Applied Psychology. Ch 10 Bullying. London: Hodder Arnold
Dr Victoria Lewis

44. Nansel, T.R. (2001). Bullying is Common Study. Site www.abcdnews.go
Hazler, R.J. (1996). Breaking the Cycle of Violence: Interventions for Bullying and Victimisation. Washington DC: Accelerated Development
Katz, A; Buchanan, A. & Bream, V. (2001). Bullying in Britain: Testimonies from Teenagers. Surrey: Young Voice
Latane & Darley, (1970). The Unresponsive Bystander. Why Doesn’t He Help? New York: Appleton Century Crofts
Maines, B. & Robinson, G. (1998). All for Alex. A Circle of Friends. Bristol: Lucky Duck Publishing
Nansel, T.R. (2001). Bullying is Common Study. Site
Naylor, P. & Cowie, H. (1994). The effectiveness of peer support systems in challenging school bullying: The perspectives and experiences of teachers and pupils. Journal of Adolescence. 22 (4). Pp
Dr Victoria Lewis

45. Oliver, C. & Candappe, M. (2002). Tackling bullying: Listening to the Views of Children and Young People. Thomas Coram Research Unit: Institute of Education.
Olweus, D. (1991). Bully-Victim Problems Among School Children: Basic Facts and Effects School-Based Intervention Programme. In Pepler, D. & Rubin, K.H. (eds). The Development of Childhood Aggression. Erlbaum: Hillsdale NJ. Pp
Orpinas, P. & Horne, A.M. (2006). Creating a Positive School Climate and Developing Social Competence. Washington DC: American psychological Association
Dr Victoria Lewis

46. Pikas, A. (2002). New developments of shared concern
Pikas, A. (2002). New developments of shared concern. School Psychology International
Reid, P; Monsen, J; & Rivers, I. (2004). Psychology’s contribution to understanding and managing bullying within schools. Educational Psychology in practice. 20 (3). Pp
Rigby, K. (2005). Why do some children bully at school? The contribution of negative attitudes towards victims and the perceived expectations of friends, parents and teachers. School Psychology International. 26 (2). Pp
Dr Victoria Lewis

47. Rivers, I. & Soutter, A. (1996). Bullying and the Steiner School Ethos
Rivers, I. & Soutter, A. (1996). Bullying and the Steiner School Ethos. A Case study Analysis. 17. Pp
Salmivalli, C and others. (1996). Bullying as a group process: Participant roles and their relations to social status within a group. Aggressive Behaviour 22. Pp1-15
Shakeshaft, C., Barber, E., Hergenrother, M., Johnson, Y., Mandel, L. & Sawyer, J. (1995). Peer harassment in schools. Journal For a Just and Caring Education. 1. Pp30–44.
Sharp, S. & Smith, P.K (eds). (1994). Tackling Bullying in Your School. A Practical Handbook for Teachers. London: Routledge
Smith, P.K. (1999). The Nature of School Bullying: A Cross National Perspective. London: Routledge
Smith, P.K., Morita, Y, Junger-Tas, J., Olweus, D., Catalano, R. & Slee, P. (eds.) (1999). The Nature of School Bullying: a Cross-National Perspective. London: Routledge.
Dr Victoria Lewis

48. Smith, P.K. & Shu, S. (2000). School Bullying: Insights and Perspectives. London: Routledge
Soutter, A. & McKenzie, A.  (2000). The use and effects of anti-bullying and anti-harassment policies in Australian schools.  School Psychology International. 21(1),
Twemlow and others. (2001). Improving the Social and Intellectual Climate in Elementary Schools by Addressing the Bully-Victim-Bystander Power Struggles. In Cohen, J (ed). (2001). Caring Classrooms, Intelligent Schools: The Social Emotional Education of Young Children. New York Teachers. College Press
Dr Victoria Lewis

49. Vaillancourt, T. Hymel, S. & McDougall, P. (2003)
Vaillancourt, T. Hymel, S. & McDougall, P. (2003). Bullying is power: Implications for school-based intervention strategies. Special issue: Journal of Applied School Psychology. 19 (2). Pp
Vreeman, R.C. & Carrol, A.E. (2007) . A systematic review of school-based interventions to prevent bullying. Pediatric Adolescence Med.161. Pp78-88.
Whitney, I. & Smith, P.K. (1993). A survey of the nature and extent of school bullying in junior/middle and secondary schools. Educational Research. 35. Pp3-25.
Young, S. (1998). The support group approach to bullying in schools. Educational Psychology in Practice. 14. Pp32-39
Dr Victoria Lewis