1. Expanding Social Horizons: Socioemotional Development in Middle Childhood
Chapter 7

2. Family Relationships Learning Objectives
What is a systems approach to parenting?
What are the primary dimensions of parenting? How do they affect children’s development?
What determines how siblings get along? How do first born, later born and only children differ?
How do divorce and remarriage affect children?
What factors lead children to be maltreated?

3. The Family as a System
Older views saw child development as primarily the result of parent’s actions
Current views, Systems View, of child rearing view the family as a system with parents and children affecting each other
In addition, the family system is impacted by outside influences such as extended family, community, and even larger entities

4. Dimension and Styles of Parenting
Parenting can be viewed through the dimension of warmth and responsiveness and control
-Children of warm parents feel secure, happy
and are generally well behaved
-Children of hostile or uninvolved parents may
be anxious and less controlled
Parenting can also be viewed involving control with the controlling parent at one end and the uninvolved parent at the other end of the spectrum Intermediate amount of control is best.

5. Dimension and Styles of Parenting
The dimension of control affects parenting effectiveness
-Children of over controlling parents may feel
unable to develop standards of behavior on
their own
A balance of good control, communication, and warmth results in children with an understanding of what is expected and invites dialogue

6. Parenting Styles
Authoritarian parenting combines high control with little warmth
-Hard work, respect, and obedience are
encourage.
-Little give and take and parents do not explain
their decisions
Authoritative parenting combines moderate control with warmth and responsiveness
-Rules are explained and decision making is
encouraged

7. Parenting Styles
Indulgent permissive parenting provides warmth and little control
-Use little punishment and accept their
children’s behavior
Indifferent uninvolved parenting involves little warmth or control
-Parents not involved with their children
-Basic physical and emotional needs met
-Minimize their time with their children
-Avoid becoming emotionally involved with the child

8. Parenting Styles
Styles of parenting have different effects on children’s development
-Authoritative parents
-children tend to be more responsible, self-
reliant, and friendly
-Authoritarian parents
-children have low self-esteem and are less
skilled socially
-Indulgent-permissive parents
-Children are often impulsive and easily
frustrated, little self control
-Indifferent-uninvolved parents
-Children often have low self-esteem, are aggressive
impulsive and moody

9. Variations Associated with Culture and Socioeconomic Status
European-American parents
-value warmth and moderate control in order
to encourage independence and self
reliance
Asian and Latin American parents
-individualism is not highly valued
-cooperation and collaboration is encouraged
with more emotional restraint and control
Lower social economic status leads to more authoritarian styles

10. Parental Behavior
What specific behaviors can parent’s use to influence their children? Direct instruction, modeling, feedback (reinforcement, punishment)
Parents who use direct instruction tell children what to do, and when and why
-Most powerful when combined with modeling
Learning by observation is
effective, especially if paired
with counterimitation, or
learning what should not be
done.

11. Parental Behavior
Direct instruction , telling child what to do , when, and why is better than just telling them what to do
Parents can coach children in social skills such as inviting a child over privately so as not to hurt the feelings of those not invited
Modeling is a powerful tool in teaching children what is to be done as well as counterimitation – teaching what not to do such as a child seeing parent punish a sibling for bad behavior.

12. Feedback Negative reinforcement trap
-a child cries, complains or whines until the
parent relents and provides what the child
desires
Punishment
-most effective when:
-immediate
-consistent
-informative (providing an explanation and a way to avoid in the future
-administered by a person with whom the child
has a warm and affectionate relationship

13. Punishment Side effects and drawbacks
-temporarily effective, suppressive
child does not learn new behaviors to
replace the bad behaviors
Children upset by punishment, may not understand the purpose of the consequences
Physical punishment may result in aggression as a means to resolve disputes with other children
Physical punishment can result in mental health problems, impaired parent-child relationships, delayed cognitive development .

14. Punishment
Time outs
-brief, effective and informative, allows time to calm down and then talk to child about why he was punished and how to avoid future punishment

15. Influences of the Marital System
Chronic severe parental conflict is harmful to children
-Jeopardizes the child’s feelings of a stable
family
-Affects the parent-child relationship, parent may use same style of resolving conflict with the child
-Parents in conflict may be too preoccupied for high quality parenting
- Children are more prone to become anxious, withdrawn, chronic illnesses

16. Influences of the Marital System
When parents find mutually acceptable solutions children respond positively to conflict
Some parents don’t work well together, compete for child’s attention,
Some parents act as gatekeepers limiting the participation of the other parent

17. Children’s Contributions: Reciprocal Influence
Children’s characteristics affect how parents treat them
-age
temperament and behavior

18. Siblings As families grow, sibling relationships become more complex
-Toddlers talk more to mothers than older
siblings
-By 4 years old, children talk more to older
siblings than their mothers
-One effect of a sibling’s birth is that fathers
interact more with older children
A birth of another child is stressful and may result in withdrawal or regression

19. Adopted Children 2-4% of U.S. children are adopted
Adopted children are more likely to be prone to conduct disorders and adjustment problems in school
-more likely the older the child’s age at the time
of adoption
-related to the quality of care before adoption
Most adopted children do quite well

20. Impact of Birth Order First born children
-Parents are enthusiastic but inexperienced
-Parents are demanding and have high
expectations
-The child often has a higher IQ scores, more
conforming and are more likely to go to
college

21. Impact of Birth Order Later born children
-Are less concerned about pleasing parents
-Are more popular with peers and more
innovative
Only children
-Contrary to myth, are not spoiled or egotistical
-Succeed more often in school and have
higher levels of IQ, leadership, autonomy and
maturity

22. Divorce and Remarriage
In the 1990s, 50%of all U.S. children experienced their parents divorce
After divorce, children tend to live with mothers
Mothers were less affectionate with children in
the first months after a divorce
Parents are less able to control their children after a divorce
2 years after a divorce, mother were more affectionate and better able to discipline
6 years after divorce, mothers and daughters were closer but mother and sons had greater conflict

23. What Aspects of Children’s Lives are Affected by Divorce?
Research show that school achievement, conduct, adjustment, self-concept, and parent- child relations faired poorly compared to children of intact families
Adolescents of divorced parents are more likely to become teen parents and to become divorced themselves
There is a small but significant increase in emotional problems of adult children of divorced parents

24. Impact of Divorce on Children
Development may be affected by loss of a parent role model, economic hardship, and parental conflict
Children are more affected during childhood and adolescence than preschool or college age
Children who are more emotional may be more negatively impacted by divorce
Reward with warmth, support, communication. Parental cooperation and same sex custody are positive in their impact

25. Blended Families
More than 2/3 of divorced men and women remarry, resulting in blended families
While school age boys benefit from presence of a stepfather, girls do not adjust well to their mother’s remarriage
Research on children living with a remarried father is sparse. Usually results in behavior problems, with children less likely to adjust well

26. Parent-Child Relationships Gone Awry: Child Maltreatment
Physical abuse
-assault leading to physical injuries
Sexual abuse
-fondling, intercourse, or other sexual behavior
Psychological abuse
-ridicule, rejection or humiliation
Neglect
-inadequate food, clothing or medical care

27. Who are the Abusing Parents?
Some countries culture does not allow for physical punishment.
-countries that allow spanking have a higher
rate of maltreatment
The stress of poverty and social isolation is correlated with abuse
Infants, preschoolers and frequently ill children are more often abused

28. Effects of Abuse on Children
-Poor peer relations
-Do poorly in school
-Adults who were abused as children
-more depression and anxiety
-more likely to abuse their children

29. Preventing Abuse and Maltreatment
-Reducing physical punishment
-Social supports for parents
-allows for venting and advise
-Counseling and parenting skills training

30. Peers Learning Objectives What are the benefits of friendship?
What are the important features of groups of children and adolescents? How do these groups influence individuals?
Why are some children more popular that others? What are the causes and consequences of being rejected?
Why are some children aggressive? Why are other frequent targets of aggression?

31. Friendships
By 4-8 years, children single out specific peers as playmates
At 8 or 9, children have their first intimate and reciprocal relationships
Older children and adolescents emphasize loyalty in friendships
By about 14, friendships consist of intimacy and support during stressful periods. Less dependence on family

32. Who are Friends? -Same sexed, similar age, same race or ethnic group
-Similar interests, attitudes, recreation pursuits
-Children with same sexed and opposite sexed
friends tend to be more popular, well adjusted
academically successful, and have higher self
esteem

33. Quality and Consequences of Friendships
Children with good friends
-higher self-esteem
-less likely to be lonely or depressed
-engage in prosocial behavior
Girl friends
-Rumination
-talking about each other’s problems
Adults who had good friends as children
-experience greater feeling of self-worth

34. Groups Cliques -tend to dress, talk and act alike Crowds
-affiliated with others with similar values and
attitudes
-some have more status and may impact self-
esteem
-parenting style and involvement may have an
impact which crowd children affiliate with

35. Group Structure
Often exhibit a dominance hierarchy with a leader and followers
Boys
-physical power is often the characteristic
associated with leadership
Girls and older boys
-individual traits that relate to the group’s
main interest determine leadership

36. Peer Pressure -Irresistible pressure to conform to the group’s norms
-most junior high and high school students
resist negative peer pressure
-most effective when standards are not clear
cut
-taste in music, clothing, smoking, drinking and
drug usage

37. Popularity and Rejection
Popular children
-liked by classmates
Rejected children
-disliked by classmates
Average children
-liked and disliked but without as much
intensity
Neglected children
-ignored by classmates

38. Consequences of Rejection
Rejected children are more likely to:
-drop out of school
-commit juvenile offenses
-suffer from psychopathology
Parental behavior
-imitation by the child of poor social skills and
conflict
-inconsistent punishment may result in
aggressive and antisocial behavior

39. Aggressive Children and Their Victims
Instrumental aggression
-using aggression to achieve an explicit goal
Hostile aggression
-unprovoked aggression used to intimidate and
harass, seen in elementary school
Children’s tendency to behave aggressively is stable over time, especially if seen at a young age, 1 and 2 yo use physical aggression
Relational aggression –undermining others social relationships,rumors
Electronic bullying

40. Aggressive Children and Their Victims
Chronic victims of aggression
-10% of elementary school age children and
adolescents
-children tend to be lonely, anxious, depressed,
and dislike school
-may be aggressive themselves or tend to be
withdrawn and submissive,
easily baited, overreact

41. Aggressive Children and Their Victims
Victims can be taught to deal with aggression
Not respond in kind
Not show fear
Increase self esteem
Help them foster friendships
Create a school climate that does not tolerate bullying and supports victims

42. Outcomes of childhood Aggression
Half of seriously aggressive 7 yo had committed serious acts of delinquency by age 17
12 times more likely than less aggressive children to be charged for criminal activity
Leads to poor adjustment to high school. Failing grades, dropping out, unemployment

43. Television: Boob Tube or Window to the World?
Learning Objectives
What is the impact of watching television on children’s attitudes and behavior?
How does TV viewing influence children’s cognitive development?
How truthful are common criticisms of TV?

44. Influence on Attitudes and Social Behavior
Important contributor to the socialization of north American children
Research show frequent viewing of TV violence increases aggressive behavior
8 year olds that were exposed to large amounts of TV violence had more extensive criminal records as 30 year old. Similar results were found for violent video games

45. Influence on Attitudes and Social Behavior
Some shows teach language and reading skills
Time watching Sesame Street predicts grades in high school and time adolescents spend reading
Teach academic and social skills
Such shows are Arthur, Martha Speaks, Super Why!, Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood
Curious George, Sid the Science Kid, The Dinosaur Train teach math and science
Electric Company, Contact, Square One TV help learn academic and social skills

46. Stereotypes
Some research suggests that exposure to TV may promote the acceptance of gender, race, and ethnic stereotypes by children
Shows on TV do not accurately portray the demographic texture of society. Minorities and women may be under represented and gender roles may be exaggerated
Children who are heavy consumers of TV may accept these misrepresentations as reality.

47. Consumer Behavior Preschool children
-perceive commercials as a form of
entertainment
8 or 9 year old children
-understand that commercials are meant to be
persuasive
-may not always be truthful
Children are affected by advertising
-most ask parents to buy items seen of TV

48. Guides for Children and TV Viewing
Parent should set absolute rules concerning amount of TV to be watched
Children should not watch TV out of boredom
Adults should watch TV with children and discuss programs
Parent should model good TV viewing, avoiding shows that are inappropriate for young viewers

49. Prosocial Behavior
Children are more likely to act prosocially after watching brief films in which peers acted prosocially
Programs such as Mr. Rogers Neighborhood were found to be effective in encouraging prosocial behavior, particularly in boys
While these studies show that TV can promote
prosocial behavior, children may not watch the appropriate shows, which are limited in number

50. Influences on Cognition
Studies show that shows such as Sesame Street promote more proficiency as recognizing letters, numbers, counting and vocabulary
These studies confirm that TV can be a positive influence on these abilities if parents promote good viewing

51. Criticisms of TV Two major criticisms:
-TV promotes short attention spans because of
high interest segments
-TV promotes passive, lazy thinkers who are
less creative
Findings
-No support for TV promoting short attention
spans
-Mixed findings on TV having negative impact
on thinking and creativity

52. Use of Computers
Used for school assignments, play games, communicate with peers, social media
Amount of harm depends on games played, violent games promote violence
Games like Tetris, Star Fox emphasize perceptual- spatial skills
10% of youths become addicted to games – dominates their lives and produces a high much like gambling addiction
Online communication(ie facebook) can promote self-disclosure and produce high quality friendships

53. Understanding Others Learning Objectives
As children develop, how do their descriptions of others change?
How does understanding of other’s thinking change as children develop?
When and why do children develop prejudice towards others?

54. Children’s Description of Others
Goes through stages, concrete to conceptual
Young children use concrete descriptors such as appearance and possessions, and see people more positively than negatively
8-14 yo begin to include psychological traits such as funny or smart
16yo integrate traits and give more complex descriptions such as describing how and when a person is sarcastic

55. Selman’s Theory
Children move through stages of development of perspective taking, preoperational children are egocentric, think others think as they do
Children at higher stages of cognitive development are at higher levels of perspective taking
Children who are more advanced in perspective taking are more well liked by their
peers

56. Selman’s Stages of Perspective Taking
Undifferentiated age 3-6, Children know that self and others can have different thoughts and feelings
Social-informational 4-9yrs, Children know that perspectives differ because people have access to different information, believe people think a certain way because they do not have some information
Self-reflective, 7-12-yrs. Children can step into another’s shoes and view themselves as others do; they know that others can do the same

57. Selman’s Stages of Perspective Taking
Third-person, yrs, Children can step outside the immediate situation to see how they and another person are viewed by a third person
Societal, 14 to adult, Adolescents realize that a third-person perspective is influenced by broader personal, social, and cultural contexts. Realize that many would think its silly to watch TV on a sunny day

58. Prejudice
When children learn that they belong to a particular group, they learn prejudice ( more of an enhanced view of their group that a negative view of others in preschool and kindergarten)
-decreases during elementary school
-increases again in adolescence
Children tend to view members of groups as more homogenous that they really are
Prejudice may be related to social status
-the higher the status of the group, the more
positive it is viewed
-reduced by discussion and role play

59. Prejudice, How to Discourage
Encourage friendly contact between different groups
Groups must be equal and not in competition with each other
Parents and teachers must model and reduce prejudice
Have groups work together toward common goals, projects
Have children play different roles
Educate with stories of racism