1. Access Psychology Hannah Butler hbutler@stvincent.ac.uk

2. Steps of the scientific method Psychologists and other social scientists regularly propose explanations for human behaviour. On a more informal level, people make judgments about the intentions, motivations and actions of others on a daily basis. While the everyday judgments we make about human behaviour are subjective and anecdotal, researchers use the scientific method to study psychology in an objective and systematic way. The results of these studies are often reported in popular media, which leads many to wonder just how or why researchers arrived at the conclusions they did.

3. In order to truly understand how psychologists and other researchers reach these conclusions, you need to know more about the research process that is used to study psychology and the basic steps that are utilized when conducting any type of psychological research. By knowing the steps of the scientific method, you can better understand the process researchers go through to arrive at conclusions about human behaviour.

4. What is the scientific method? The goals of psychological studies are to describe, explain, predict and perhaps influence mental processes or behaviours. In order to do this, psychologists utilize the scientific method to conduct psychological research. The scientific method is a set of principles and procedures that are used by researchers to develop questions, collect data and reach conclusions.

5. What are the goals of scientific research in psychology? Researchers seek not only to describe behaviours and explain why these behaviours occur; they also strive to create research that can be used to predict and even change human behaviour. The four basic steps of the process are: 1) Forming a Hypothesis 2) Designing a Study and Collecting Data 3) Analyzing the Data and Reaching Conclusions 4) Sharing the Findings

6. The experimental methods Definition: The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis.

7. There are three types of experiments you need to know: 1. Laboratory / Controlled Experiments 2. Field Experiments 3. Natural Experiments

8. Laboratory/controlled experiment This type of experiment is conducted in a well-controlled environment – not necessarily a laboratory – and therefore accurate measurements are possible. The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and using a standardised procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each independent variable group. For example, Milgram’s experiment on obedience

9. Strengths and limitations What are the strengths and limitations of carrying out experiments?

10. Strength: It is easier to replicate (i.e. copy) a laboratory experiment. This is because a standardised procedure is used. Strength: They allow for precise control of extraneous and independent variables. This allows a cause and effect relationship to be established. Strength: Enable use of complex equipment Strength: Often cheaper and less time- consuming than other methods.

11. Limitation: The artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural behaviour that does not reflect real life, i.e. low ecological validity. This means it would not be possible to generalize the findings to a real life setting. Limitation: Demand characteristics or experimenter effects may bias the results and become confounding variables.

12. Motherly love? During the first half of the 20th century, many psychologists believed that showing affection towards children was merely a sentimental gesture that served no real purpose. Behaviourist John B. Watson once even went so far as to warn parents:John B. Watson "When you are tempted to pet your child, remember that mother love is a dangerous instrument." According to many thinkers of the day, affection would only spread diseases and lead to adult psychological problems

13. During this time, psychologists were motivated to prove their field as a rigorous science. The behaviourist movement dominated psychology and urged researchers to study only observable and measurable behaviours. An American psychologist named Harry Harlow, however, became interested in studying a topic that was not so easy to quantify and measure: love.

14. American psychologist Harry Harlow conducted many experiments on attachment using rhesus monkeys

15. In one experiment, Harlow (1958) investigated the role played by breastfeeding in human infant–mother attachment.

16. American Psychologist, 13, 673–685. Harlow, H.F. (1958). The nature of love.

17. Video. Harlow’s monkeys

18. Harlow’s monkeys (1958) Harlow wanted to study the mechanisms by which newborn rhesus monkeys bond to their mothers. These infants were highly dependent on their mothers for nutrition, protection, comfort and socialization. What exactly, though, was the basis of the bond? The behavioral theory of attachment would suggest that an infant would form an attachment with a carer that provides food. In contrast the evolutionary theory would suggest that infants have an innate (biological) need to touch and cling to something for emotional comfort. Harry Harlow did a number of studies on attachment in rhesus monkeys during the 1950's and 1960's. His experiments took several forms:

19. 1. Infant monkeys reared in isolation – some died, others were frightened and behaved in an abnormal manner. They could not interact with other monkeys even when they were older. 2. Infant monkeys reared with surrogate mothers – 8 monkeys were separated from their mothers immediately after birth and placed in cages with assess to two surrogate mothers, one made of wire and one covered in soft terry toweling cloth. Four of the monkeys could get milk from the wire mother and four from the cloth mother. The animals were studied for 165 days.

20. Both groups of monkeys spent more time with the cloth mother (even if she had no milk). The infant would only go to the wire mother when hungry. Once fed it would return to the cloth mother for most of the day. If a frightening object was placed in the cage the infant took refuge with the cloth mother (its safe base). safe base

21. This surrogate was more effective in decreasing the youngsters fear. The infant would explore more when the cloth mother was present. This supports the evolutionary theory of attachment, in that it is the sensitive response and security of the caregiver that is important (as apposed to the provision of food).

22. Harlow concluded that for a monkey to develop normally s/he must have some interaction with an object to which they can cling during the first months of life (critical period). Clinging is a natural response - in times of stress the monkey runs to the object to which it normally clings as if the clinging decreases the stress.

23. Harlow found therefore that it was social deprivation rather than maternal deprivation that the young monkeys were suffering from. When he brought some other infant monkeys up on their own but with 20 minutes a day in a playroom with three other monkeys he found they grew up to be quite normal emotionally and socially.

24. 8 infant rhesus monkeys were separated from their mothers at birth. Participants

25. Each monkey was then individually reared in a cage. Each cage contained two surrogate mothers. ▫ One surrogate was made entirely of wire mesh ▫ One surrogate was wire mesh, but with a soft, cloth covering Procedure

26. Group 1: 4 monkeys are each placed in a separate cage in which the cloth surrogate provides food and the wire surrogate does not Group 2: 4 monkeys are each placed in a separate cage in which the wire surrogate provides food and cloth surrogate does not Procedure

27. Observe each monkey’s preference for feeding from either the cloth or wire surrogate mother Record the time spent each mother type Procedure

28. Infants spent more time with the cloth mother, regardless of which surrogate provided the nourishment Results

29. This preference is stronger when distressed eg. frightened by a mechanical object (toy spider)

30. Contact comfort’ (provided by the softness of the cloth covering) is more important than feeding in the formation of an infant rhesus monkey’s attachment to its mother. Conclusion

31. Contact comfort is likely to be a crucial factor in human infant–parent attachment. Generalisation

32. Can you apply your strengths and limitations to Harlow’s study? What ethical considerations can you think of?

33. Ethical considerations Harlow’s work has been criticized. His experiments have been seen as unnecessarily cruel (unethical) and of limited value in attempting to understand the effects of deprivation on human infants. It was clear that the monkeys in this study suffered from emotional harm from being reared in isolation. This was evident when the monkeys were placed with normal monkey (reared with a mother), they sat huddled in a corner in a state of persistent fear and depression. In addition Harlow created a state of anxiety in female monkeys which had implications once they became parents. Such monkeys became so neurotic that they smashed their infant's face into the floor and rubbed in back and forth.

34. Harlow's experiment is sometimes justified as providing a valuable insight into the development of attachment and social behaviour. At the time of the research there was a dominant belief that attachment was related to physical (i.e. food) rather than emotional care. It could be argued that the benefits of the research outweigh the costs (suffering of the animals). For example, the research influenced the theoretical work of John Bowlby, the most important psychologist in attachment theory. It could also be seen a vital in convincing people about the importance of emotional care in hospitals, children's homes and day care.John Bowlby