1. Fossil Fuels and Energy Conservation Chapter 19

2. We use a variety of energy sources We use these energy sources in our homes, our machinery, to fuel our vehicles, and provide the comfort and conveniences A great deal of energy emanates from Earth’s core, enabling us to harness geothermal power An immense amount of energy resides within the bonds among protons and neutrons in atoms, and this energy provides us with nuclear power Most of our energy comes from the Sun –Solar radiation –Photosynthesis –Fossil fuels = highly combustible substances formed from the remains of organisms

3. Fossil fuels are our dominant source of energy We use oil, coal, and natural gas Fossil fuels have replaced biomass as our dominant source of energy The high-energy content of fossil fuels makes them efficient to burn, ship, and store These fuels generate electricity = a secondary form of energy that is easier to transfer and apply to a variety of uses

4. Resources are renewable or nonrenewable Renewable energy = supplies of energy will not be depleted by our use –Sunlight, geothermal energy, and tidal energy Nonrenewable energy = at our current rates of consumption we will use up Earth’s accessible store of these sources in a matter of decades to centuries –Oil, coal, natural gas, nuclear energy –To replenish the fossil fuels we have depleted so far would take millions of years

5. Finding Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Satellite imagery Aerial sensors (magnetometers) Gravity differences Core sampling Sensors to detect electrical resistance or radiation Seismic surveys Chemical analysis of water and plants (to detect leaching ores)

6. Fossil fuels are created from fossils Fossil fuels we burn today were formed from the tissues of organisms that lived 100- 500 million years ago Organic material is broken down in an anaerobic environment = one that has little or no oxygen –Bottoms of deep lakes, swamps, and shallow seas Kerogen is bituminous material that occurs in oil shale that can yield oil when heated Organic matter is eventually converted into crude oil, natural gas, or coal

7. Heat and pressure underground form petroleum Oil is the world’s most used fuel since the 1960s It’s worldwide use over the past decade has risen 17% Crude oil (petroleum) = a mixture of hundreds of different types of hydrocarbon molecules –Formed 1.5 - 3 km (1 - 2 mi) underground –Dead organic material was buried in marine sediments and transformed by time, heat, and pressure Refineries separate crude oil into components such as gas, tar, and asphalt

8. The age of oil began in the mid-19th century People have used solid forms of oil (i.e., tar) for thousands of years Modern extraction and use began in the 1850s –First bottled and sold as a healing aid, but it is carcinogenic –This “rock oil” could be used lamps and as a lubricant –Edwin Drake drilled the world’s first oil well, in Titusville, Pennsylvania, in 1859 Today, the U.S. consumes 25% of the world’s oil –Consumption is still increasing

9. Fossil fuel reserves are unevenly distributed Some regions have substantial reserves, whereas others have very few How long a nation’s reserves will last depends on: –How much the nation extracts, uses, and exports –Nearly 67% of the world’s proven reserves of crude oil lie in the Middle East –OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries –The U.S. possesses more coal than any other country

10. Developed nations consume lots of energy People in developed regions consume far more energy than those in developing nations Industrialized nations divide their energy use evenly between transportation, industry, and other uses –Developing nations use energy for subsistence activities (agriculture, food preparation, and home heating) –Developing nations use manual or animal energy instead of fossil fuels

11. Regions vary greatly in energy consumption

12. It takes energy to make energy To harness, extract, process, and deliver energy requires substantial inputs of energy –Roads, wells, vehicles, storage tanks Net energy = the difference between energy returned and energy invested –Net energy = energy returned – energy invested

13. Energy returned on investment (EROI) Energy returned on investment (EROI) = energy returned/energy invested –Higher ratios mean we receive more energy than we invest –Ratios decline when we extract the easiest deposits first and now must work harder to extract the remaining reserves

14. Central Case: oil or wilderness on Alaska’s North Slope? Alaska’s remote North Slope represents a pristine wilderness to some and untapped oil riches to others The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is the focus of intense debate over whether the “1002 Area” should be opened to drilling Opponents fear that drilling will sacrifice the nation’s national heritage for little gain

15. Alaska’s North Slope consists of three regions The National Petroleum Reserve – Alaska (NPR-A) –Intended to remain untapped unless the nation faced an emergency –It has been opened recently for drilling Prudhoe Bay consists of state lands that are drilled for oil that is transported via the trans-Alaska pipeline to the port of Valdez The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) is federal land set aside for wildlife and to preserve pristine ecosystems –It has been called the “Serengeti of North America” –The technically recoverable oil from ANWAR is 10.3 Billion barrels (a barrel is 42 gallons)

16. Alaska’s North Slope

17. U.S. Field Production of Crude oil

18. Proposed Changes to Keystone Pipeline

19. Phase I The Keystone Pipeline (Phase I), delivering oil from Hardisty, Alberta 3,456-kilometre (2,147 mi) to the junction at Steele City, Nebraska and on to Wood River Refinery in Roxana, Illinois and Patoka Oil Terminal Hub (tank farm) north of Patoka, Illinois, completed in June 2010.

20. Phase II The Keystone-Cushing extension (Phase II), running 480-kilometre (300 mi) from Steele City to storage and distribution facilities (tank farm) at Cushing, Oklahoma, completed in February 2011.

21. Capacity of Phases I and II The first two phases have the capacity to deliver up to 590,000 barrels per day (94,000 m 3 /d) of oil into the Mid-West refineries

22. Phase III The Gulf Coast Extension (Phase III), running 784-kilometre (487 mi) from Cushing to refineries at Port Arthur, Texas was completed in January 2014, and a lateral pipeline to refineries at Houston, Texas and a terminal will be completed in mid-2015.

23. Phase III Capacity Phase III has capacity to deliver up to 700,000 barrels per day (110,000 m 3 /d) to the Texas refineries.

24. Phase IV Keystone XL The proposed Keystone XL Pipeline (Phase IV), which would essentially duplicate the Phase I pipeline between Hardisty, Alberta, and Steele City, Nebraska, with a shorter route and a larger-diameter pipe. It would run through Baker, Montana, where American-produced light crude oil from the Williston Basin (Bakken formation) of Montana and North Dakota would be added to the Keystone's current throughput of wynthetic crude oil (syncrude) and diluted bitumen (dilbit) from the oils sands of Canada.

25. Pipeline Construction The pipeline has a minimum ground cover of 4 feet (1.2 m). It also involved construction of 23 pump stations and delivery facilities at Wood River and Patoka, Illinois. In 2011, the second phase of Keystone included a 480-kilometre (298 mi) extension from Steele City, Nebraska, to Cushing, Oklahoma, and 11 new pump stations to increase the capacity of the pipeline from 435,000 to 591,000 barrels per day (69,200 to 94,000 m 3 /d).

26. Next Phases production Additional phases (III and IV) have been in construction or discussion since 2011. If completed, the Keystone XL would add 510,000 barrels per day (81,000 m 3 /d) increasing the total capacity up to 1.1 million barrels per day (170×10 3 m 3 /d)

27. Cost The original Keystone Pipeline cost US$5.2 billion with the Keystone XL expansion slated to cost approximately US$7 billion. TransCanada is now the sole owner of the Keystone Pipeline System, as TransCanada received regulatory approval on August 12, 2009 to purchase ConocoPhillips' interest. Parties who have agreed to make volume commitments to the Keystone expansion to have the option to acquire up to a combined 15% equity ownership. One of such companies is Valero Energy Corporation.

28. Production/Imports 2014 U.S. oil production was about 9,000,000 barrels per day (1,400,000 m 3 /d) in early November, 2014. The year before, through August 2014, the US imported an average of about 7.5 million barrels of oil per day.

29. Oil use per day in U.S. In 2013, the United States consumed a total of 6.89 billion barrels of petroleum products, an average of 18.89 million barrels per day. 1 This total includes about 0.32 billion barrels of biofuels. How long will ANWAR oil fuel U.S.?

30. Petroleum geologists infer deposit location and size Petroleum occurs in isolated deposits, collecting in porous layers beneath impermeable layers Geologists drill rock cores and conduct ground, air, and seismic surveys to map underground rock formations –Estimates for ANWR’s oil deposits = 11.6 – 31.5 billion barrels, enough for 33 months at current consumption rates –But, only 4.3 – 11.8 billion barrels are technically recoverable, equivalent to 1 year of consumption

31. Not all oil can be extracted Some oil would be so hard to extract, it is not worth the cost –As prices rise, economically recoverable amounts approach technically recoverable amounts –Proven recoverable reserve = the amount of oil (or any other fossil fuel) that is technically and economically feasible to remove under current conditions

32. Drilling in ANWR will not fill U.S. oil demand

33. Oil Platforms in Gulf of Mexico Find address Basemaps Layers/Legend 200km 100mi

34. Release Date 1/29/2015

35. Gulf of Mexico Production “Gulf of Mexico federal offshore oil production accounts for 17% of total U.S. crude oil production and federal offshore natural gas production in the Gulf accounts for 5% of total U.S. dry production. Over 45% of total U.S. petroleum refining capacity is located along the Gulf coast, as well as 51% of total U.S. natural gas processing plant capacity.” http://www.eia.gov/special/gulf_of_mexico/

36. The U.S. enacted policies to reduce foreign oil The U.S. government enacted policies to diversify its oil supply –It imports oil from several countries –The U.S. is developing its own reserves –Proposed drilling in ANWR, despite charges that drilling won’t help much –Resuming extraction at currently closed sites –Research into renewable energy sources –The Strategic Petroleum Reserve stockpiles oil in caverns under Louisiana for use when world supplies run out –But this reserve equals just one month’s supply

37. We may have already depleted half our reserves Some people calculate that we have used up about 1.1 trillion barrels of oil Reserves-to-production ratio (R/P ratio) = the amount of total remaining reserves divided by the annual rate of production (extraction and processing) –At current levels of production (30 billion barrels/year), we have about 40 years of oil left We will face a crisis not when we run out of oil, but when the rate of production begins to decline

38. We are facing an oil shortage We will face a shortage when production declines and demand increases –Production declines once reserves are depleted halfway, so this crisis will likely begin within the next several years –Hubbard’s peak = Geologist M. King Hubbard predicted that oil production would peak around 1970 –His prediction was accurate, and U.S. production continues to fall –We may have passed peak global production in 2005

39. U.S. oil production has already peaked

40. Global oil production is peaking

42. Data 2013 Energy Administration Consumption Thousands barrelsProduction Thousands barrelsImports Thousand barrelsExports Thousand barrels 1 United States18961 1 United States12343 1 United States6618 1 Saudi Arabia8733 2 China10303 2 Saudi Arabia117022 China58442 Russia7249 3 Japan45313 Russia107643 Japan4395 3 United Arab Emirates2743 4 Russia35154 China44594 India25274 Kuwait2345 5 India35095 Canada4074 5 Korea, South22645 Iraq2289 6 Brazil2998 6 United Arab Emirates34416 Germany22386 Nigeria2070 7 Saudi Arabia29687 Iran31927 France16977 Venezuela1905 8 Canada24318 Iraq30588 Singapore12448 Qatar1847 9 Germany24039 Mexico29089 Spain11719 Angola1756 10 Korea, South232410 Kuwait281210 Italy115310 Canada1643 11 Mexico204411 Brazil269411 Taiwan93911 Norway1603 12 Iran1870 12 Venezuel a2689 12 Netherland s929 12 Kazakhsta n1400 13 France176713 Nigeria237213 Thailand79813 Algeria1383 14 Indonesia163514 Qatar206714 Indonesia69314 Iran1322 15 United Kingdom150815 Angola188915 Turkey66115 Mexico864

43. Predicting an exact date for peak oil is hard Oil production is expected to peak in the near future as reserves deplete Amount of untapped oil reserves hard to predict –Companies and governments do not disclose their amount of oil supply –Disagreement among geologists –Oil consumption increases at an unpredictable rate in developing countries Survival after oil depletion depends on research of new technologies and energy conservation

44. Peaking oil production will have consequences Coming divergence of demand and supply will have momentous economic, social, and political consequences –Our lives will be profoundly affected “The long emergency”: from lacking cheap oil to transport goods, our economies collapse and become localized –Suburbs will become the new slums, a crime-ridden landscape littered with the hulls of rusted out cars More optimistic observers argue that as supplies dwindle, conservation and alternative energy supplies will kick in –We will be saved from major disruptions

45. Oil sands can be mined and processed Oil sands (tar sands) = sand deposits with 1 - 20% bitumen, a thick form of petroleum rich in carbon, poor in hydrogen –Degraded and chemically altered crude oil deposits –Removed by strip mining Requires special extraction and refining processes to become useful Primarily found in Venezuela and Alberta

46. Oil shale is abundant in the U.S. west Oil shale = sedimentary rock filled with kerogen (organic matter) that can be processed to produce liquid petroleum –Can be burned like coal or baked in hydrogen (called prylosis) to produce liquid petroleum More than 40% is found in the U.S., mostly on federally owned land in the west Low prices for crude oil have kept investors away –But as oil prices increase, oil shale is gaining interest

47. Diesel oil Asphalt Grease and wax Naphtha Heating oil Aviation fuel Gasoline Gases Furnace Heated crude oil Refining Crude Oil Petroleum (crude oil) Primary Recovery Secondary Recovery Tertiary Recovery Petrochemicals Refining

48. Petroleum products have many uses Extracted oil is refined to create many products

49. Coal The world’s most abundant fossil fuel Coal = organic matter (woody plant material) that was compressed under very high pressure to form dense, solid carbon structures –Very little decomposition occurred

50. Coal use has a long history The Romans used coal for heating in the second and third centuries in Britain The Chinese have used coal for 2,000 - 3,000 years Commercial mining began in the 1700s –The invention of the steam engine expanded coal’s market Coal helped drive the Industrial Revolution and the steel industry In the 1880s, people used coal to generate electricity

51. Coal varies in its qualities Coal varies from place to place –Water quantity and amount of potential energy it has Peat = organic material that is broken down anaerobically but remains wet, near the surface and not well compressed –Widely used as a fuel in Britain Additional pressure turns peat into coal –Lignite = least compressed –Sub-bituminous and bituminous –Anthracite = most compressed; has the most energy

52. Removing Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Surface mining Overburden (material lying over deposit) Spoil (waste) Open-pit Dredging Strip mining (spoil banks) Mountaintop removal (spoil allowed by Bush to be dumped in valleys and streams) Subsurface mining Room and pillar longwall

53. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 Surface mined land not restored in many countries Requires mining companies to restore most surface mined land so it can be used for the same purpose as it was before it was mined Levied a tax on mining companies to restore land that was disturbed by surface mining before the law was passed

54. Fig. 14.4c, p. 324 Area Strip Mining

55. Subsurface Mining Disturbs less land than surface mining Usually produces less waste material Not as effective Expensive and dangerous Collapse of roofs and walls, explosions of dust and natural gas, lung diseases Mine shafts and tunnels Room and pillars: pillars of ore are left holding up roof Longwall: shear off ore, move roof supports and allow roof to collapse (subsidence of layers on top)

56. Room and pillar

57. Coal Mining Long shear wall cut

58. Anthracite Coal in PA 7 billion extractable tons of coal in Eastern Pennsylvani a

59. Anthracite Coal – Llewellyn, PA 200 feet below the surface the Salem Coal Vein runs 70 feet high and 200 feet wide for about 10 miles.

60. Environmental Impacts of Using Mineral Resources Scarring and disruption of the land surface Collapse or subsidence of land above (unsettle houses, break sewer, gas, and water lines) Wind/water erosion of toxin laced mining wastes ACID mine drainage-sulfuric acid produced by aerobic bacteria feeding on iron sulfide Emission of toxic chemicals into the atmosphere Exposure of wildlife to toxic mining wastes stored in holding ponds and leakage of toxic wastes

61. AMD: Acid Mine Drainage Acid mine drainage, sometimes referred to as AMD, results when the mineral pyrite (FeS 2 ) is exposed to air and water, resulting in the formation of sulfuric acid and iron hydroxide For chemists, the equation for AMD formation is: FeS 2 + 3.75 O 2 + 3.5 H 2 O  Fe(OH) 3 + 2 H 2 SO 4 acidity and iron, can devastate water resources by lowering the pH and coating stream bottoms with iron hydroxide, forming an orange color

62. StepsEnvironmental Effects exploration, extraction Mining Disturbed land; mining accidents; health hazards; mine waste dumping; oil spills and blowouts; noise; ugliness; heat Solid wastes; radioactive material; air, water, and soil pollution; noise; safety and health hazards; ugliness; heat Processing transportation, purification, manufacturing Use transportation or transmission to individual user, eventual use, and discarding Noise; ugliness thermal water pollution; pollution of air, water, and soil; solid and radioactive wastes; safety and health hazards; heat Fig. 14.6, p. 326 Environmental Effects of Extracting Mineral Resources

63. Percolation to groundwater Leaching of toxic metals and other compounds from mine spoil Acid drainage from reaction of mineral or ore with water Spoil banks Runoff of sediment Surface Mine Subsurface Mine Opening Leaching may carry acids into soil and ground water supplies Fig. 14.7, p. 326 Pollution and degradation due to mining

64. Environmental Effects of Processing Mineral Resources Ore mineral Gangue-waste material mixed in ores Tailings-removing the gangue from ores produces piles of waste Smelting-used to separate the metal from the other elements in the ores (emit tons of air and water pollution) Mining uses a lot energy, produces a lot of wastes, and the products after used become wastes Fig. 14.7, p. 326

65. Surface mining Metal ore Separation of ore from gangue Scattered in environment Recycling Discarding of product Conversion to product Melting metal Smelting Fig. 14.8, p. 327 Life Cycle of Mineral Resource

66. Coal contains impurities Sulfur, mercury, arsenic, and other trace metals Sulfur content depends on whether coal was formed in salt water or freshwater –Coal in the eastern U.S. is high in sulfur because it was formed in marine sediments When high-sulfur coal is burned, it released sulfate air pollutants, which contribute to smog and acidic deposition –Mercury can bioaccumulate Ways to reduce pollution must be found

67. Carrying Capacity for Geologic Resources Exhaustion of the resource or Environmental damage caused by extraction, processing, and conversion to products Mining industry uses 5-10% of global energy use Major contributor to air and water pollution (greenhouse gases)

68. Grade grade: percentage of metal content of an ore More accessible and higher grade ores extracted first Extracting less accessible and lower grade will lead to greater environmental impacts Takes about 75,000 tons to extract about 4.5 lbs gold Cyanide heap leaching

69. How long will coal last in the US? How long will coal last for the world? USGS coal in the US will last 20-50 years 24-82% of original resources Less than 1% to 38% for what can be extracted and marketed

70. What is natural gas? Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons-methane, ethane, propane, and butane After recovery, propane and butane are removed and converted to LPG liquefied petroleum gas It is further refined to remove any water or other impurities It is largely transported through 300,000 thousand miles of natural gas pipeline If not served by pipeline, gas can be moved by tanker trucks-cold and under pressure

71. Natural gas has only recently been widely used Plutarch called naturally burning gas in Iraq “eternal fires” The first commercial extraction occurred in 1821 but was only used locally, because it could not be transferred safely First used to light street lamps, then for heating and cooking After thousands of miles of pipes were laid, natural gas transport became safer and more economical Liquefied natural gas (LNG) = liquid gas that can be shipped long distances in refrigerated tankers Russia has the largest deposits, and Russia and the U.S. lead the world in production and consumption, respectively

72. Natural gas: How long will world supplies last? How long will natural gas supplies for the US? The fastest growing fossil fuel in use today Provides 25% of global commercial energy consumption World supplies are projected to last about 60 more years Eia.gov 92 years in US alone at current rate of consumption 24 trillion cu ft / yr natural gas is used primarily for heating, cooking, and powering vehicles It is also used in a process for making ammonia fertilizer Odorless and colorless, it is highly flammable To help detect gas leaks minute quantities of smelly sulfur compound are added Burns clean-no other impurities like sulfur or mercury or radioactive compounds

73. Natural gas is formed in two ways Natural gas = consists of methane (CH 4 ) and other volatile hydrocarbons Biogenic gas = created at shallow depths by bacterial anaerobic decomposition of organic matter –“swamp gas” Thermogenic gas = results from compression and heat deep underground Kerogen = organic matter that results when carbon bonds begin breaking –Source material for natural gas and crude oil

74. Natural gas is often wasted Coalbed methane = from coal seams, leaks to the atmosphere during mining In remote oil-drilling areas, natural gas is flared: simply burned off –In Alaska, gas captured during oil drilling is being reinjected into the ground for future use Landfills produce biogenic natural gas –Operators are capturing and selling it

75. “fracking” horizontal hydraulic fracturing, a mixture of water, chemicals, and sand ("fracking fluid") is used to recover previously inaccessible natural gas from shale fluid is sent underground at high pressures, fracturing shale to release trapped gas Fluid is proprietary and companies do not divulge what is present in fluid There are also particles-could be sand or ceramic bits to hold the fracture open so the gas can be extracted

76. Fracking problems/ benefits Problems-drilling is messy and environmentally invasive Drilling occurs below water table and aquifers, drinking water can become contaminated Uses enormous quantities of water-then water is contaminated and can’t be used for anything Economically huge boon to landowners, drill/excavation workers, towns that develop more services around mining for gas

77. Druzhba pipeline Begins in central Russia, Siberia and splits into two sections capacity of over 2 million barrels per day (bpd), of which some 1.4-1.6 million bpd go directly to consumers in the European Union, while remaining volumes stay in Belarus Refineries in Germany and Poland are the destination of the northern leg southern leg of the Druzhba pipeline supplies Slovakia, Hungary and the Czech Republic and has total capacity of over 400,000 bpd but is often under-used-about half is purchased from Russia Lithuania, Belarus keep about 300,000 bpd http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL0943417520070109?pageNumber=2

78. Gas Closure Left Europe cold and dark Winter 2007 closed natural gas deliveries to Europe Trade disagreement w Belarus, Belarus prevented gas from moving through its territory Belarus itself gets around 400,000 bpd (barrels per day) for its two refineries. Russia late in 2007 imposed a crude export duty of $180 per (metric) tonne to bring a halt to a lucrative scheme in which Belarussian refiners made up to $4 billion a year by buying duty-free Russian crude and exporting finished products. Belarus retaliated on Jan. 3 by imposing a transit charge of $45 per tonne on all Russian crude crossing its territory.

80. Methane hydrate shows potential Methane hydrate (methane ice) = molecules of methane in a crystal lattice of water ice molecules Occurs in arctic locations and under the seafloor Formed by bacterial decomposition in anaerobic environments Immense amounts could be present, from twice to 20 times the amount of natural gas Extraction could destabilize marine ecosystems –Landslides and tsunamis release of large amounts of methane (a greenhouse gas)

81. These alternative fossil fuels have downsides Their net energy values are low because they are expensive to extract and process –They have Low Energy Returned on Energy Invested (EROI) ratios: about 3:1 compared to the 5:1 ratio on crude oil Extraction processes devastate the landscape and pollute waterways Combustion pollutes the atmosphere just as much as crude oil, coal, and gas

82. Fossil fuel emissions pollute Fossil fuels have harmed the environment –Disrupt the carbon cycle by releasing carbon dioxide, the greatest impact of fossil fuel use –Pollutants and hydrocarbons cause severe health problems –Contaminates water supplies and freshwater ecosystems

83. Coal mining affects the environment Strip mining causes severe soil erosion and chemical runoff –Acid drainage = sulfide minerals on exposed rock surfaces react with oxygen and rainwater to produce sulfuric acid –Mountaintop removal causes enormous damage

84. Coal mining harms human health Subsurface mining is harmful to human health –Mine shaft collapses –Inhalation of coal dust can lead to fatal black lung disease Costs to repair damages of mining are very high –These costs are not included in the market prices of fossil fuels, which are kept inexpensive by government subsidies Mining companies must restore landscapes, but the impacts are still severe –Looser of restrictions in 2002 allowed companies to dump rock and soil into valleys, regardless of the consequences

85. Scientists anticipate negative impacts in ANWR Some scientists anticipate damage if ANWR is drilled –Vegetation killed –Degraded air and water quality –Roads fragment habitat –Prospecting and drilling disrupts wildlife Other scientists say little harm will be done –ANWR will be developed with environmentally sensitive technology and approaches

86. Nations can become dependent on foreign energy This causes unrest and conflict We are vulnerable to supplies becoming unavailable or expensive The U.S. imports 60% of its crude oil, meaning other nations control our energy supplies

87. The oil embargo of the 1970s caused panic OPEC’s (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) oil embargo caused widespread panic and skyrocketing prices

88. Oil supply and prices affect nation’s economies Hurricanes Katrina and Rita destroyed offshore drilling systems and spiked oil prices Because the politically volatile Middle East has the majority of oil reserves, crises are a constant concern for the U.S. –Despite political disagreements, the U.S. has a close relationship with Saudi Arabia because Saudi Arabia owns 22% of the world’s oil reserves

89. The U.S. enacted policies to reduce foreign oil The U.S. government enacted policies to diversify its oil supply –It imports oil from several countries –The U.S. is developing its own reserves –Proposed drilling in ANWR, despite charges that drilling won’t help much –Resuming extraction at currently closed sites –Research into renewable energy sources –The Strategic Petroleum Reserve stockpiles oil in caverns under Louisiana for use when world supplies run out –But this reserve equals just one month’s supply

90. The global trade in oil is lopsided

91. Residents may or may not benefit from reserves Extraction can benefit residents of the area with: –Increased job opportunities –Trickling down of profits –Citizens in Alaska are paid dividends by the government But residents are not always compensated for pollution and displacement

92. Our reliance on fossil fuels has consequences

93. How will we convert to renewable energy? Fossil fuel supplies are limited and their use has consequences Nations have several options for future energy use –Continue relying on fossil fuels until they are no longer available –Increase funding to develop alternative energy sources dramatically –Steer a middle course and gradually reduce our reliance on fossil fuels

94. Energy conservation Energy conservation = the practice of reducing energy use to: –Extend the life of our nonrenewable energy supplies –Be less wasteful –Reduce environmental impact

95. Energy conservation has followed need Conservation usually only occurs in time of need –OPEC embargo of 1973 drastically increased conservation, but it didn’t last –Government research into alternative energy sources decreased –The failure to improve fuel economy has increased our oil consumption –Taxes on gasoline are extremely low, meaning that gasoline does not account for its substantial external costs on production and consumption

96. CAFE standards The U.S. government has failed to enforce corporate average fuel efficiency (CAFE) standards, which mandate higher fuel efficiency in automobiles

97. Substitutes Ceramics and plastics can be used in place of metals Cost less to produce (less energy), don’t require painting, can be molded, don’t oxidize No substitutes for He, phosphorus for phosphate fertilizers, Mn for steel production, and Cu for wiring Substitutes not viable if require more energy to produce or if they are inferior to the materials they replace

98. Personal choice and efficiency Energy conservation can be accomplished in two ways: Individuals can make conscious choices to reduce energy consumption in everyday life and drastically increase conservation –Driving less, turning off lights, buying efficient machines Society can make energy-consuming devices more efficient –Also helps reduce the enormous amounts of energy wasted every day

99. We already have the technology needed To increase fuel efficiency The efficiency of power plants –Cogeneration = excess heat produced during electrical generation is used to heat buildings and produce other types of power

100. Efficiency among consumer products Improvements in home design can reduce energy required to heat and cool them Scores of appliances have been reengineered to increase energy efficiency Consumers need to vote with their wallets by buying energy-efficient products

101. Conservation and renewable energy is needed Effective energy conservation could save 6 million barrels of oil a day Conserving energy is better than finding a new reserve –It decreases environmental impacts while extending our access to fossil fuels The only sustainable way of reliable supply of energy is to ensure sufficiently rapid development of renewable energy

102. Conclusion Fossil fuels have helped us build our complex industrialized societies We are now approaching a turning point in history: fossil fuel production will begin to decline We can encourage conservation and alternative energy sources Or we can wait until fossil fuels are depleted Renewable energy sources are becoming feasible and economical, and it becomes easier to envision giving up on our reliance on fossil fuels and charting a win-win future for humanity and the environment