1. Human Development Chapter 9 AP Psychology Alice F. Short Hilliard Davidson High School

2. A SHORT Time to Ponder At what age do you stop becoming more mature? Why? The text states that the “body, mind and emotion are interdependent.” Imagine the loss of function in one of these areas. What would it be like if one of these was at a diminished capacity?

3. Chapter Outline Exploring Human Development Child Development Adolescence Emerging Adulthood, Adult Development, and Aging Human Development and Health and Wellness

4. Development development - the pattern of continuity and change that occurs throughout the lifespan – physical processes – cognitive processes – socioemotional processes prenatally (before birth) during childhood adolescence adulthood

5. Development biological processes cognitive processes socioemotional processes

6. Development: Biological Processes biological processes (maturation) – genes – hormonal changes of puberty and menopause – changes in brain, height and weight – motor skills

7. Development: Cognitive Processes cognitive processes – thought – intelligence – language

8. Development: Socioemotional Processes socioemotional processes – relationships – emotions – personality

9. A SHORT Time to Ponder Imagine the loss of body, mind and/or emotion. What would life be like if one of these was at a diminished capacity?

10. Research Methods in Development Psychology Age-Related Differences – cross-sectional studies – a number of people of different ages are assessed at one point in time, and differences are noted cohort effects – differences between individuals that stem not necessarily from their ages but from the historical and social time period in which they were born and developed – DISCUSSION: What cohort effects exist within your generation? faster – longitudinal studies – assesses the same participants multiple times over a lengthy period takes a LONG time see change within a population over time Very happy people? Old or young? What do you think? (p. 279)

11. Nature vs. Nurture nature – biological inheritance (genotype) nurture – environmental experiences phenotype – combination of nature and nurture the developer – individuals take active roles in own development Which leads to / influences optimal life experiences more?

12. A SHORT Time to Ponder Critical Controversy: Genes or Superparents? (p. 281) – Judith Harris (1998) The Nurture Assumption – parents make no difference – Sandra Scarr – “superparenting” is unnecessary – Diana Baumrind – “good enough” is not good enough – W. Andrew Collins (2000) – even w/ genetic influence taken into account, parenting practices made a difference in children’s lives. – If you have decide to have children in the future, how might the information in this Critical Controversy affect your approach to parenting? – Why might today’s parents be more likely than parents in the past to try to be superparents? – How influential are your peers in your life? Is the influence positive or negative? – What should you do of your child falls in with the “wrong crowd”?

13. Another SHORT Time to Ponder Consider phenylketonuria (PKU). Imagine if you’re diet would literally permanently influence your intelligence. Would you be able to follow it? How severe of a consequence would it have to be for you to dramatically shift your diet?

14. Developer’s Role in Development develop beyond genetic inheritance and environment  seeking optimal experiences – build and shape our own lives – life themes – life activities, social relationships and life goals Food for Thought – How do you influence YOUR own development? – How do you you seek optimal experience—or how do you not? – Who do you know that seeks optimal life experiences? (personally—not a celebrity) – How do we as a society hold others the “developer’s role” to an incredibly high standard within society and governance? How do we not?

15. Resilient Children early experience versus later experience – nurturing during first year – no one doomed by childhood resilience – a person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times – resilient children become capable adults – moderate difficulties may promote development – associated with advantages (intelligence, supportive relationship with parent/adult, etc.) DISCUSSION: What difficulties have promoted development in your life?

16. Prenatal Development Germinal Period (weeks 1-2) – conception – occurs when a single sperm cell from the male merges with the female’s ovum (egg) to produce a zygote – fertilization – zygote – a single cell with 23 chromosomes from the mother and 23 from the father Embryonic Period (weeks 3-8) – beginnings of organs appear – 3 rd week: neural tube (eventually spinal cord) – end: heart begins to beat, face starts to firm, intestinal tract appears Fetal Period (months 2-9) – 2 months: kidney bean – 6 months: 1.5 pounds

17. Prenatal Development Teratogens… agents that cause birth defects – diseases (ruebella, German measles, etc.) – nicotine – alcohol  fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) small head, defects to limbs and heart, below-average intelligence – STIs  increased risk of stillbirth, infections, blindness (gonorrhea), preterm birth Effects of teratogens depend on… – timing of exposure – genetic characteristics – postnatal environment

18. Preterm Birth preterm infant – one who is born prior to 37 weeks after conception – greater risk for developmental difficulties – preterm infants born into poverty are more likely to have problems than are those who live in better socioeconomic conditions – massage can improve outcomes

19. Physical Development humans = most helpless newborns (not finished) reflexes - genetically wired behaviors that are crucial for survival – DISCUSSION: Spartans and babies: Are you a fan? – persist throughout life coughing, blinking, yawning – disappear with neurological development grasping

20. Physical Development (Fig. 9.2, p. 285) rooting, gripping, toe curling, moro or startle, galant

21. Physical Development perceptual and motor skills – sticky gloves – holding objects: texture, size hardness – moving around room: different perspectives preferential looking – give “choice” and measure preferences (7 days old) – 3 months – prefer real faces to scrambled faces, prefer mother’s face – familiarity breeds liking (also for words, music, etc.)

22. Brain Development (Fig. 9.4, p. 286) myelination (the process of encasing axons with fat cells) continues after birth dramatic increase in synaptic connections – birth: 100 billion neurons have few connections – synapses – used and unused neural pathways brain imaging techniques illuminate developmental changes in the brain 3-6 years of age: most rapid growth in frontal lobe areas – new experiences promote brain development

23. A SHORT Time to Ponder Given what we have already learned about exposure to language, combining what we are learning about frontal lobe development, what are some impact of socioeconomic status on long-term development?

24. Cognitive Development Jean Piaget (1896-1980) – Swiss developmental psychologist – Children actively construct their cognitive world using… schemas – concepts or frameworks that organize information assimilation – incorporate new info into existing schemas accommodation – adjust schemas to new information

25. Piaget’s Theory sensorimotor stage preoperational stage concrete operational stage formal operational stage

26. Piaget’s Theory: Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Stage (birth - 2 years) – coordinate sensations with movements – object permanence Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 years) – symbolic thinking – intuitive reasoning – egocentrism Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 yrs) – operational thinking (e.g., conservation) – Fig. 9.8, p. 289 – classification skills – logical thinking in concrete contexts Formal Operational Stage (11-15 yrs) – lasts through adulthood – abstract and idealistic thought – hypothetical-deductive reasoning

27. Evaluating Piaget’s Theory some cognitive abilities emerge earlier than Piaget thought – underestimated infants, overestimated adolescents and adults Piaget overestimated formal operations culture and education also influence development Lev Vygotsky, Russian psychology (1962): Cognitive Development – is an interpersonal process. – happens in a cultural context. (OWN world over THE world) – is facilitated by the process of scaffolding.

28. A SHORT Time to Ponder Why might it be easy for Piaget to underestimate infants? Why might it be easy for Piaget to overestimate adolescents and adults? Do you think that you are in Piaget’s formal operational stage? Have you mastered formal operational thought?

29. Socioemotional Development in Childhood temperament attachment in infancy Erikson’s Eight Stages of Human Development parenting and childhood moral development and Kohlberg

30. Temperament an individual’s behavioral style or characteristic way of responding three clusters of temperament – easy – difficult – slow-to-warm-up another perspective (effortful control/self- regulation, inhibition, and negative affectivity)

31. Infant Attachment Harlow Study – infant rhesus monkeys – is it nourishment or contact that matters? – chose between two surrogate “mothers” cold wire mother versus warm cloth mother -infants preferred cloth mother across situations – contact comfort is critical to attachment – the close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver – may provide important foundation for subsequent development

32. Infant Attachment Mary Ainsworth – Strange Situation – Caregivers leave infant alone with stranger, then return…secure attachment or insecure attachment? – Criticism: cultural variations – infant attachment – the close emotional bond between and infant and its caregiver – secure attachment – the ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment

33. Socioemotional Development Erik Erikson (1902-1994) – theory emphasizes lifelong development – eight psychosocial stages of development first four stages: childhood fifth stage: adolescence 6 th -8 th stages: adulthood – each stage represents a developmental task crisis that must be resolved personal competence or weakness

34. Erik Erikson: Socioemotional Development First Four Stages: Childhood – trust versus mistrust – autonomy versus shame and doubt – initiative versus guilt – industry versus inferiority

35. A SHORT Time to Ponder During the fourth stage of Erikson, Industry versus Inferiority, to you think that motor skill development also avoid feelings of inferiority? How protective is an appropriate level? How protective is too protective?

36. Evaluating Erikson primary focus on case-study research omitted important developmental tasks

37. A SHORT Activity Create a t-chart in your spiral for criticisms of Piaget and Erikson. Work with a partner to complete the t-chart.

38. Parenting Styles Authoritarian – parents are controlling and punitive – correlated with lack of initiative, poor communication skills, social incompetence*** Authoritative – parents encourage independence with limits – correlated with social competence, social responsibility, and self-reliance Neglectful – parents are generally uninvolved – correlated with less social incompetence and poor self- control Permissive – parents are involved, but place few limits – correlated with poor social competence, lack of respect for others, poor self-control

39. Friendships Intersection, p. 297 talking over life problems co-rumination – worrying about a topic without finding a resolution. – girls co-ruminate more than boys – increased feelings of depression and anxiety DISCUSSION: Do you co-ruminate? Can you adjust your behavior to be more positive and supportive?

40. Moral Development Kohlberg (1927-1987) – presented moral dilemmas and analyzed responses – Preconventional behavior guided by punishments and rewards – Conventional standards learned from parents and society – Postconventional contracts, rights and abstract principles

41. Moral Development: Kohlberg 3 Levels, 6 stages, 2 stages in each level

42. Evaluating Kohlberg’s Theory moral reasoning ≠ moral behavior – what we say and do are not always consistent women generally score lower than men – justice perspective (men) – care perspective (women) – Carol Gilligan

43. A SHORT Activity Have you started to develop a personal moral code? What defines your ‘sense of justice’? On a fresh page in your spiral, write an outline of your own moral code. It should contain a general thesis. It should contain both general ideas and specific examples and explanations. HINT: You should take this activity very seriously, or it might become a 5 paragraph essay writing assignment.

44. Current Research on Moral Development Prosocial Behavior – behavior that is intended to benefit other people – correlated with supportive parenting – correlated with self-control Conscience Formation – forms by age 3 and carries over into adulthood – parent-child interactions clear, elaborate, rich with emotional content shared positive emotion

45. Moral Development Parenting strategies associated with morality in children… – warm and supportive rather than harsh – reasoning with child when disciplining – help child learn to take others’ perspective – involve child in decision making – model moral behavior and thinking

46. A SHORT Time to Ponder Is it worse to behave in immoral ways when wilding superior moral reasoning? We typically think of older generations teaching younger generations. How and when do younger generations teach older generations lessons in morality?

47. Understanding Adolescence transition from childhood to adulthood starts age 10-12 ends age 18-21

48. Adolescent Physical Development beginning 10-12; ending 18-21 Puberty – rapid skeletal and sexual maturation – puberty begins at beginning of adolescence Testosterone (androgen) — boys – genital development, height, voice changes Estrodiol (estrogen) — girls – breast, uterine, and skeletal development

49. A SHORT Time to Ponder Why do you think there is a reverse for the genders in outcomes of early development?

50. Adolescent Brain Development Early – amygdala emotions Late – prefrontal cortex reasoning and decision making risk taking emotions develop before reasoning… thus your fine decision-making skills… (lack skills to control pleasure- seeking) ability to resist peer-pressure related to prefrontal cortex thickening

51. Adolescent Cognitive Development Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage – Adolescent Egocentrism the belief that others are as preoccupied with the adolescent as he or she is sense of uniqueness sense of invincibility --> risky behaviors ODD CONTRAST: 12- to 18-year-olds overestimate the likelihood that you will die

52. Adolescent Socioemotional Development Erikson: Psychosocial Development – identity versus identity confusion (fifth stage) – adolescents face the challenges of finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life – identity confusion – the individual either withdraws, becoming isolated from peers and family, or loses him or herself in the crowd

53. Adolescent Socioemotional Development James Marcia’s Four Identity Statuses – built on Erikson – two dimensions of identity: exploration and commitment identity diffusion identity foreclosure identity moratorium identity achievement

54. James Marcia’s Four Identity Statuses

55. Adolescent Socioemotional Development Ethnic Identity – attachment to ones minority group – attachment to larger culture – biculturalism – identifying in some ways with their ethnic minority group and in other ways with the majority culture (more positive outcomes) – combines with identity relating to sexual orientation and gender roles Influence of Parents and Peers – parent as manager/counselor/monitor – balance involvement and allowing to explore – peer relations peak in importance

56. A SHORT Time to Ponder Do your peers have a primarily positive or negative impact on your life? How so? In what ways? Are your friends delinquents? Are you the delinquent? (Sometimes this is the case… ) What is/would be the impact of this?

57. Adult Development and Aging Jeffrey Arnett’s Emerging Adulthood – extended adolescence – traditional-age college and after (18-25) – “trying on” adult roles – five key features identity exploration instability self-focus (few social obligations) feeling “in between” age of possibilities – optimistic, guide life in + direction

58. Physical Changes in Adulthood Early Adulthood (20s, 30s) – most reach the peak of physical development – ‘old-man-strength’ Middle Adulthood (40s, 50s) – most lose height, many gain weight – menopause for women (late 40s or early 50s) – dramatic decline in the productions of estrogen hot flashes – sudden, brief flushing of the skin and a feeling of elevated body temperatures nausea, fatigue, rapid heartbeat Late Adulthood – accumulated wear and tear – less ability to repair and regenerate

59. Okinawa, Japan centenarians – individuals who live to 100 years or beyond – diet (grains, fish, vegetables) – lifestyle (easygoing, low-stress) – community (aged included in community) – activity (many continue to work… retirement kills, yo) – spirituality (sense of purpose)

60. Biological Theories of Aging Cellular-Clock Theory (Leonard Hayflick, 1977) – maximum # of cell divisions possible – maximum of about 100 – predicts human life span of about 120 years – shortening telomeres Free-Radical Theory – free-radicals – unstable oxygen molecules – cause DNA and cell damage Hormonal Stress Theory – stress hormones linger longer – lowers resistance to stress – increases likelihood of disease

61. The Aging Brain some new brain cells grow in hippocampus and olfactory bulb surviving/healthy neurons take up slack for their deceased/disabled neighbors reduced lateralization of brain function: both hemispheres used more equally – lateralization – the specialization of function in one hemisphere of the brain or the other – reduction in lateralization = compensatory role

62. The Brains of the Mankato Nuns Fig. 9.13, p. 306 stimulating mental activities increase dendritic branching  slows the effects of age

63. Cognitive Development in Adulthood Early Adulthood – idealism gives way to realistic pragmatism – reflection on worldview – intellectual skills peak – realistic, pragmatic Middle Adulthood – crystallized intelligence (vocabulary) peaks – fluid intelligence (inductive reasoning) peaks – numerical ability & perceptual speed decline Late Adulthood – speed of processing generally declines – memory retrieval skills decline – wisdom (expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life) increases in some individuals – strategy training and physical activity can improve cognitive function

64. Cognitive Development

65. Socioemotional Development in Adulthood Erikson’s Theory – Last Four Stages identity versus role confusion (adolescence) intimacy versus isolation generativity versus stagnation integrity versus despair

66. Marriage Erikson’s Stage 6: intimacy v. isolation women and men are marrying later John Gottman’s principles for successful marriages – nurturing fondness and admiration – turning toward each other as friends – giving up some power – solving conflicts together

67. Parenting Erikson’s Stage 7: generativity v. stagnation wellness through contribution to next generation contribution through rearing children constructive engagement with children correlated with marital satisfaction, life satisfaction, career success

68. Winding Down Erikson’s Stage 8: integrity v. despair wellness through reminiscence seeking meaning through life review confronting own pending death importance of meaning: past and present! more selective about social network consider Bucket List wasted life  fear death

69. Old, Cranky, and Happy Laura Carstensen – socioemotional selectivity theory – addresses the narrowing of social contacts and the increase in positive emotion that occur with age living in the PRESENT (less worried about the future) – true for people who have limited time – engagement in present life can be a vital source of meaning

70. Human Development: Health and Wellness Development during adulthood marked by – physical and psychological decline – conscious awareness of aging Coping with life’s difficulties – assimilation and accommodation (Piaget) – difficulties provide opportunities for change—to develop a rich and complex view of self and world Victor Frankl – Life Themes – the uniqueness of each person and the finiteness of life

71. Chapter Summary Explain how psychologists think about development. Describe children’s development from prenatal stages to adolescence. Identify the most important changes that occur in adolescence. Discuss adult development and the positive dimensions of aging. Discuss important factors in successful adult psychological development.

72. Chapter Summary Development occurs across the lifespan and is influenced by both – nature – biological inheritance – nurture – environmental experience Physical Development – childhood – adolescence – adulthood

73. Chapter Summary Cognitive Development – childhood – adolescence – adulthood Socioemotional Development – childhood – adolescence – adulthood

74. Chapter Summary Piaget: Cognitive Development – schemas, assimilation, and accommodation – sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages Kohlberg: Moral Development – preconventional, conventional, and postconventional morality

75. Chapter Summary Erikson: Psychosocial Development – emphasizes lifelong development – eight psychosocial stages (crises) of development Positive Psychology and Development – most report being happy across the life span Coping, Life Themes, and Development