2. Scaffolding Questions, prompts and nonverbal communication enabling learners to complete tasks which they could not have managed on their own (Wood et al., 1976).

3. Breaking down ideas into smaller parts

4.  Visual and graphic support (Pictures, Venn diagrams, mind maps, tables, charts)  Make key words memorable – repetition, paraphrasing, matching up.  Give activities before reading or listening tasks to prepare students.  Reinforce understanding of key concepts and key words after reading/listening tasks.  ‘Model’ activities such as role-plays with a colleague or a bright student first.  Give students language frames to guide written work or glossaries.  Code switching – alternating between the 2 languages.  Making tasks accessible if a text/audio is very difficult to understand.

5. 1) The prince & princess activity as an alternative to a gap-fill? 2) The George Washington info-gap activity? 3) The greenhouse effect info-gap with pictures activity? 4) Re-ordering sentences about the greenhouse effect? 5) The text on Karl Marx.

6. The task assigned to a text determines the level of difficulty just as much as the text itself.

7.  Introduce the general topic [activation]  Prediction  Pre-teach vocabulary, if necessary  Gist task – with a time limit – to give the students a ‘flavour’ of the text  Detailed reading – scanning for information and analysis at sentence level  Discussion – don’t ignore the actual content of the text!  Follow-up/extension task – students prepare a written or spoken piece on the topic