2. 24-2 Introduction Why has the range of choices among providers of digital photo printing services expanded so much during the 2000s? How has this expansion contributed to the decline in the price of printed digital photos? Does this expansion relate to the concept of perfect competition? In this chapter, you will find some answers.

3. 24-3 Did You Know That... In common speech, competition simply means “rivalry?” Under extreme perfectly competitive situations, individual buyers and sellers cannot affect the market price? Economic profits that perfectly competitive firms may earn for a time ultimately disappear as other firms enter the industry?

4. 24-4 Characteristics of a Perfectly Competitive Market Structure Perfect Competition  A market structure in which the decisions of individual buyers and sellers have no effect on market price

5. 24-5 Characteristics of a Perfectly Competitive Market Structure (cont'd) Perfectly Competitive Firm  A firm that is such a small part of the total industry that it cannot affect the price of the product or service that it sells

6. 24-6 Characteristics of a Perfectly Competitive Market Structure (cont'd) Price Taker  A competitive firm that must take the price of its product as given because the firm cannot influence its price

7. 24-7 Characteristics of a Perfectly Competitive Market Structure (cont'd) Why a perfect competitor is a price taker 1. Large number of buyers and sellers 2. Homogenous products are perfect substitutes 3. Buyers and sellers have equal access to information 4. No barriers to entry or exit

8. 24-8 E-Commerce Example: A Monastery Takes Advantage of Unhindered Entry When they discovered that they could purchase generic printing supplies, remanufacture printer ink cartridges, and offer them for sale on the Internet, a new business called Lasermonk.com was born.

9. 24-9 E-Commerce Example: A Monastery Takes Advantage of Unhindered Entry (cont'd) By the mid-2000s, the business was earning more than $3 million per year, which the monastery uses to fund activities ranging from computer classes for orphans to food programs for homeless children.

10. 24-10 The Demand Curve of the Perfect Competitor Question  If the perfectly competitive firm is a price taker, who or what sets the price?

11. 24-11 Neither an individual buyer nor seller can influence the price The interaction of market supply and demand yields an equilibrium price of $5 Figure 24-1 The Demand Curve for a Producer of Flash Memory Pen Drives, Panel (a)

12. 24-12 The Demand Curve of the Perfect Competitor (cont'd) The perfectly competitive firm is a price taker, selling a homogenous commodity with perfect substitutes.  Will sell all units for $5  Will not be able to sell at a higher price  Will face a perfectly elastic demand curve at the going market price

13. 24-13 Figure 24-1 The Demand Curve for a Producer of Flash Memory Pen Drives

14. 24-14 How Much Should the Perfect Competitor Produce? Perfect competitor accepts price as given  Firm raises price, it sells nothing  Firm lowers its price, it earns less revenues than it otherwise would Perfect competitor has to decide how much to produce  Firm uses profit-maximization model

15. 24-15 How Much Should the Perfect Competitor Produce? (cont'd) The model assumes that firms attempt to maximize their total profits.  The positive difference between total revenues and total costs The model also assumes firms seek to minimize losses.  When total revenues may be less than total costs

16. 24-16 How Much Should the Perfect Competitor Produce? (cont'd) Total Revenues  The price per unit times the total quantity sold  The same as total receipts from the sale of output

17. 24-17 How Much Should the Perfect Competitor Produce? (cont'd) P determined by the market in perfect competition Q determined by the producer to maximize profit TR = P x Q Profit  = Total revenue (TR) – Total cost (TC) TC = TFC + TVC

18. 24-18 Figure 24-2 Profit Maximization, Panel (a)

19. 24-19 Total Output/ Sales/TotalMarketTotalTotal dayCostsPriceRevenueProfit 0$10$5$0  $10 11555  10 218510  8 320515  5 421520  1 5235252 6265304 7305355 8355405 9415454 10485502 1156555  1 Figure 24-2 Profit Maximization, Panel (b)

20. 24-20 How Much Should the Perfect Competitor Produce? (cont'd) Profit-Maximizing Rate of Production  The rate of production that maximizes total profits, or the difference between total revenues and total costs  Also, the rate of production at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost

21. 24-21 Figure 24-2 Profit Maximization, Panel (c) Total Output/ Sales/MarketMarginalMarginal dayPriceCostRevenue 0$5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 $5 35 25 15 25 35 455 65 75 85

22. 24-22 Using Marginal Analysis to Determine the Profit-Maximizing Rate of Production Marginal Revenue  The change in total revenues divided by the change in output Marginal Cost  The change in total cost divided by the change in output

23. 24-23 Using Marginal Analysis to Determine the Profit-Maximizing Rate of Production (cont'd) Profit maximization occurs at the rate of output at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost.

24. 24-24 Short-Run Profits To find out what our competitive individual flash memory producer is making in terms of profits in the short run, we have to determine the excess of price above average total cost.

25. 24-25 Short-Run Profits (cont'd) From Figure 24-2 previously, if we have production and sales of seven flash drives, TR = $35, TC = $30, and profit = $5. Now we take info from column 6 in panel (a) and add it to panel (c) to get Figure 24-3.

26. 24-26 Profits are maximized where MR = MC This occurs at Q = 7.5 units Figure 24-3 Measuring Total Profits

27. 24-27 Short-Run Profits (cont'd) Graphical depiction of maximum profits  The height of the rectangular box represents profits per unit.  The length represents the amount of units produced.  When we multiply these two quantities, we get total economic profits.

28. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Addison Wesley. All rights reserved. 24-28 Losses are minimized where MR = MC This occurs at Q = 5.5 units Figure 24-4 Minimization of Short-Run Losses

29. 24-29 Short-Run Profits (cont'd) Short-run average profits are determined by comparing ATC with P = MR = AR at the profit-maximizing Q. In the short run, the perfectly competitive firm can make either economic profits or economic losses.

30. 24-30 The Short-Run Shutdown Price What do you think?  Would you continue to produce if you were incurring a loss?  In the short run?  In the long run?

31. 24-31 The Short-Run Shutdown Price (cont'd) As long as the loss from staying in business is less than the loss from shutting down, the firm will continue to produce. A firm goes out of business when the owners sell its assets; a firm temporarily shuts down when it stops producing, but is still in business.

32. 24-32 The Short-Run Shutdown Price (cont'd) As long as the price per unit sold exceeds the average variable cost per unit produced, the earnings of the firm’s owners will be higher if it continues to produce in the short run than if it shuts down.

33. 24-33 The Short-Run Shutdown Price (cont'd) Short-Run Break-Even Price  The price at which a firm’s total revenues equal its total costs  At the break-even price, the firm is just making a normal rate of return on its capital investment (it’s covering its explicit and implicit costs). Short-Run Shutdown Price  The price that just covers average variable costs  It occurs just below the intersection of the marginal cost curve and the average variable cost curve.

34. 24-34 Figure 24-5 Short-Run Shutdown and Break-Even Prices

35. 24-35 The Meaning of Zero Economic Profits Question  Why produce if you are not making a profit? Answer  Distinguish between economic profits and accounting profits.  Remember when economic profits are zero a firm can still have positive accounting profits.

36. 24-36 The Supply Curve for a Perfectly Competitive Industry Question  What does the short-run supply curve for the individual firm look like? Answer  The firm’s short-run supply curve is its marginal cost curve at and above the point of intersection with the average variable cost curve.

37. 24-37 Figure 24-6 The Individual Firm’s Short-Run Supply Curve Given the price, the quantity is determined where MC = MR Short-run supply = MC above minimum AVC

38. 24-38 The Supply Curve for a Perfectly Competitive Industry (cont'd) The Industry Supply Curve  The locus of points showing the minimum prices at which given quantities will be forthcoming  Also called the market supply curve

39. 24-39 Figure 24-7 Deriving the Industry Supply Curve

40. 24-40 The Supply Curve for a Perfectly Competitive Industry (cont'd) Factors that influence the industry supply curve (determinants of supply)  Firm’s productivity  Factor costs  Wages, prices of raw materials  Taxes and subsidies  Number of sellers

41. 24-41 Price Determination Under Perfect Competition Question  How is the market, or “going,” price established in a competitive market? Answer  This price is established by the interaction of all the suppliers (firms) and all the demanders.

42. 24-42 Price Determination Under Perfect Competition (cont'd) The competitive price is determined by the intersection of the market demand curve and the market supply curve.  The market supply curve is equal to the horizontal summation of the supply curves of the individual firms.

43. 24-43 P e and Q e determined by the interaction of the industry S and market D P e is the price the firm must take Figure 24-8 Industry Demand and Supply Curves and the Individual Firm Demand Curve, Panel (a)

44. 24-44 Figure 24-8 Industry Demand and Supply Curves and the Individual Firm Demand Curve, Panel (b) Given P e, firm produces q e where MC = MR  If AC = AC 1, break-even If AC = AC 2, losses If AC = AC 3, economic profit

45. 24-45 The Long-Run Industry Situation: Exit and Entry Profits and losses act as signals for resources to enter an industry or to leave an industry.

46. 24-46 The Long-Run Industry Situation: Exit and Entry (cont'd) Signals  Compact ways of conveying to economic decision makers information needed to make decisions  An effective signal not only conveys information but also provides the incentive to react appropriately.

47. 24-47 The Long-Run Industry Situation: Exit and Entry (cont'd) Exit and entry of firms  Economic profits  Signal resources to enter the market  Economic losses  Signal resources to exit the market

48. 24-48 The Long-Run Industry Situation: Exit and Entry (cont'd) Allocation of capital and market signals  Price system allocates capital according to the relative expected rates of return on alternative investments.  Investors and other suppliers of resources respond to market signals about their highest-valued opportunities.

49. 24-49 The Long-Run Industry Situation: Exit and Entry (cont'd) Tendency toward equilibrium (note that firms are adjusting all of the time)  At break-even, resources will not enter or exit the market.  In competitive long-run equilibrium, firms will make zero economic profits.

50. 24-50 The Long-Run Industry Situation: Exit and Entry (cont'd) Long-Run Industry Supply Curve  A market supply curve showing the relationship between prices and quantities after firms have been allowed time to enter or exit from an industry, depending on whether there have been positive or negative economic profits

51. 24-51 The Long-Run Industry Situation: Exit and Entry (cont'd) Constant-Cost Industry  An industry whose total output can be increased without an increase in long-run per-unit costs  Its long-run supply curve is horizontal.

52. 24-52 Figure 24-9 Constant-Cost, Increasing-Cost, and Decreasing-Cost Industries, Panel (a)

53. 24-53 The Long-Run Industry Situation: Exit and Entry (cont'd) Increasing-Cost Industry  An industry in which an increase in industry output is accompanied by an increase in long-run per unit costs  Its long-run industry supply curve slopes upward.

54. 24-54 Figure 24-9 Constant-Cost, Increasing-Cost, and Decreasing-Cost Industries, Panel (b)

55. 24-55 The Long-Run Industry Situation: Exit and Entry (cont'd) Decreasing-Cost Industry  An industry in which an increase in industry output leads to a reduction in long-run per-unit costs  Its long-run industry supply curve slopes downward.

56. 24-56 Figure 24-9 Constant-Cost, Increasing-Cost, and Decreasing-Cost Industries, Panel (c)

57. 24-57 Example: Decreasing Costs and the Market for Transistors Since the late 1960s, the annual production of transistors has expanded from 1 billion to 1 quintillion. At the same time, the cost per unit has dropped from about $1 to a miniscule fraction of a penny. Transistor production serves as a good illustration of a decreasing-cost industry.

58. 24-58 Figure 24-10 World Transistor Production and Prices Since 1968

59. 24-59 Long-Run Equilibrium In the long run, the firm can change the scale of its plant, adjusting its plant size in such a way that it has no further incentive to change; it will do so until profits are maximized. In the long run, a competitive firm produces where price, marginal revenue, marginal cost, short-run minimum average cost, and long-run minimum average cost are equal.

60. 24-60 Figure 24-11 Long-Run Firm Competitive Equilibrium

61. 24-61 Competitive Pricing: Marginal Cost Pricing Marginal Cost Pricing  A system of pricing in which the price charged is equal to the opportunity cost to society of producing one more unit of the good or service in question  The opportunity cost is the marginal cost to society.

62. 24-62 Competitive Pricing: Marginal Cost Pricing (cont'd) Market Failure  A situation in which an unrestrained market operation leads to either too few or too many resources going to a specific economic activity

63. 24-63 Issues and Applications: The Big Rush to Provide Digital Snaps in a Snap The photography industry brings in about $85 billion in revenues each year. Since 2000, the majority of those revenues have been earned from the sale of digital cameras and related digital photography products and services. During the mid-2000s, a rapidly growing part of the digital photography business has been the market for digital photo printing services.

64. 24-64 Issues and Applications: The Big Rush to Provide Digital Snaps in a Snap (cont'd) The demand for digital photo printing services increased, and the market clearing price rose from 15 to about 19 cents. Numerous firms entered the industry causing market supply to increase and the market clearing price declined from 19 cents to about 12 cents. Hence, the long-run supply curve in this industry sloped downward, indicating that this is a decreasing-cost industry.

65. 24-65 Figure 24-12 Short-Run and Long-Run Adjustments in the Digital Photo Printing Industry

66. 24-66 Summary Discussion of Learning Objectives The characteristics of a perfectly competitive market structure 1. Large number of buyers and sellers 2. Homogeneous product 3. Buyers and sellers have equal access to information 4. No barriers to entry and exit

67. 24-67 Summary Discussion of Learning Objectives (cont'd) How a perfectly competitive firm decides how much to produce  Economic profits are maximized when marginal cost equals marginal revenue as long as the market price is not below the short-run shutdown price, where the marginal cost curve crosses the average variable cost curve.

68. 24-68 Summary Discussion of Learning Objectives (cont'd) The short-run supply curve of a perfectly competitive firm  The rising part of the marginal cost curve above minimum average variable cost The equilibrium price in a perfectly competitive market  A price at which the total amount of output supplied by all firms is equal to the total amount of output demanded by all buyers

69. 24-69 Summary Discussion of Learning Objectives (cont'd) Incentives to enter or exit a perfectly competitive industry  Economic profits induce entry of new firms.  Economic losses will induce firms to exit the industry.

70. 24-70 Summary Discussion of Learning Objectives (cont'd) The long-run industry supply curve and constant-, increasing-, and decreasing-cost industries  The relationship between price and quantity after firms have been able to enter or exit the industry  Constant-cost industry  Horizontal long-run supply curve  Increasing-cost industry  Upward-sloping long-run supply curve  Decreasing-cost industry  Downward-sloping long-run supply curve