1. Theories & Models in Outdoor Education
EnEd 5165

2. Sometimes a tree grows too fast. It grows ahead of its roots.
You need to allow time for the roots to take hold.
(Anonymous saying about “life”)

3. Occam’s Razor
”when you have two competing theories that make exactly the same predictions, the simpler one is the better.”(sic) or,
"Entities should not be multiplied unnecessarily.” (14th century)

4. Foundations of Outdoor Education
•Experiential Education
•Environmental Education
•Adventure Education
Which follow the parent disciplines of
•Education and Physical Education
• Psychology
Philosophy

5. Paradigm
Construct
Concept
Facts

6. Experiential Education
Experiential education is a process through which the learner constructs knowledge, skill, and value from direct experiences (AEE, 11/3/94)

7. Experiential Learning Requisites (Dewey, 1938)
Simple NOT Easy
Highly Planned NOT Spontaneous
Meaningful NOT Meaning-less (exp. For sake of exp.)
Authentic NOT Contrived
Rooted in Empiricism NOT Laissez faire
Constructs from Personal Meaning

8. Individual MORE THAN Group
Structured NOT Phenomenological
Requires Judgment of Instructor NOT Unguided
Understanding Cause & Effect requires REFLECTION

9. Essential Elements of Experiential Education (Terwilliger, 1995)
RELEVANCE: of the experience to the learner
PROGRESSIVE: experiences build on past knowledge & experiences
AUTHENTIC: outcomes are concrete with real consequences COMBINED WITH THE OUTWARD BOUND MODEL:
CHALLENGING: important to stay w/in potential ability
REFLECTION: ”processing” helps to shift from extrinsic to intrinsic benefits

10. Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.

11. Outdoor Education
“Outdoor Education is the blending of both adventure and environmental approaches into a program of activities or experiences. Through exposure to the outdoor setting, individuals learn about their relationship with the natural environment, relationships between the various concepts of natural ecosystems, and personal relationships with others and with their inner self.” (Priest, 1986)

12. Definition of Outdoor Education (Priest, S. 1986. p. 13)
is a method for learning;
is experiential;
takes primarily in the outdoors;
requires uses of all senses and domains;
is based upon interdisciplinary curriculum matter;
And is a matter of relationships involving people and natural resources. The metaphorical model of a tree describes two approaches to outdoor education. Adventure education relates to interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships. Environmental education concentrates on ecosystemic and ekistic relationships.”

13. Definition of Outdoor Education (Priest, S. 1987)
Priest, S. (1986). Journal of Experiential Education p 15.

14. A model of environmental education in the U.K.
Palmer. J. (1998). Environmental Education in the 21st Century: Theory, Practice, & Promise. Rutledge. p. 272

15. Definition of Environmental Education
“Environmental education is aimed at approaching a citizenry that is knowledgeable concerning the biophysical environment and its associated problems, aware of how to solve those problems, and motivated to work toward their solution.” (Stapp, B., et.al., (1969). Journal of Environmental Education. 1,1. p. 34.)

16. Definitions of Environmental Education
Environmental education is learnng that produces an environmentally responsible citizenry (Hine, Hungerford & Tomera, 1987)

17. “Environmental education is the process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to develop skill and attitudes necessary to understand and appreciate the inter-relatedness among man, his culture, and his bio-physical surroundings. Environmental education also entails practice in decision-making and seelf-formulation of a code of behavior about issues concerning environmental quality.” (International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) & United Nations Education and Cultural Organization (UNESC)) in Palmer. (1998). P 7.)

18. Approaches to Environmental Education (Scott & Gough, 1993)
Nature Appreciation
Wilderness Preservation
Earth Salvation
Environmental Issues Resolution
Species Protection
Environmental Ethics
Science Education outside

19. What is Sustainability?
Brundtlund Commission Report, Our Common Future (1987)
“Sustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
Sustainability Education:
Putting the concept into
practice for citizens.

20. Start where the student is at NOT Where you want them to be (Ausubel, 1975; Constructivism)

21. “What is best taught outdoors, should there be taught” (L. B
“What is best taught outdoors, should there be taught” (L.B. Sharpe, 1949)

22. A GREENPRINT FOR MINNESOTA (MOEE,1993) MINNESOTA’S GOALS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION:
TO UNDERSTAND ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS;
TO UNDERSTAND THE CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR AND THE ENVIRONMENT;

23. TO BE ABLE TO ANALYZE, DEVELOP, AND USE PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS TO UNDERSTAND THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS OF INDIVIDUALS, INSTITUTIONS, AND NATIONS REGARDING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES;
TO BE ABLE TO EVALUATE ALTERNATIVE RESPONSES TO ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES BEFORE DECIDING ON ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION;
TO UNDERSTAND THE POTENTIAL COMPLEMENTARY NATURE OF MULTIPLE USES OF THE ENVIRONMENT;
TO PROVIDE EXPERIENCES TO ASSIST CITIZENS TO INCREASE THEIR SENSITIVITY AND STEWARDSHIP FOR THE ENVIRONMENT;
TO PROVIDE INFORMATION CITIZENS NEED TO MAKE INFORMED DECISIONS ABOUT ACTIONS TO TAKE ON ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES.

24. Interpretation
“An educational activity which aims to reveal meanings and relationships through the use of original objects, by firsthand experience, and by illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate factual information.” (Tilden, 1957, p. 8)

25. What is Interp?? An informal education process
“A process of communicating ideas and feelings which help people to understand more about themselves and the environment.”
Interpretation Association Australia.

26. The Goal of Interpretation
“Through Interpretation, Understanding
Through Understanding, Appreciation
Through Appreciation, Protection”

27. The Interpretive Spectrum
Stewardship
Appreciation
Understanding “
Reflection
Curiosity
Interpretive Opportunity

28. Six Principles of Interpretation (Freeman Tilden, 1957, p9)
If it doesn’t relate, it is sterile
Information is not interpretation. (Rather, it is revelation based upon information.)
Interpretation is an art. (Any art is teachable)
The chief aim is provocation (not instruction)
It should present a whole.
It should be age appropriate (not a “dilution” of adult material.)

29. Beck and Cable’s 15 Principles of Interpretation
To spark an interest, interpreters must relate the subject to the lives of visitors
The purpose of interpretation goes beyond providing information to reveal deeper meaning and truth
The interpretive presentation – as a work of art – should be designed as a story that informs, entertains and enlightens.
The purpose of the interpretive story is to inspire and provoke people to broaden their horizons
Interpretation should present a complete theme or thesis and address the whole person.

30. Beck and Cable’s Principles
Interpretation for children, teenagers and seniors – when these comprise uniform groups – should follow fundamentally different approaches.
Every place has a history. Interpreters can bring the past alive to make the present more enjoyable and the future more meaningful.
High technology can reveal the world in exciting new ways. However, incorporating this technology into the interpretive program must be done with foresight and care.
Interpreters must concern themselves with the quantity and quality (selection and accuracy) of information presented. Focused well-researched interpretation will be more powerful than a longer discourse.

31. Beck and Cable’s Principles
Before applying the arts in interpretation, the interpreter must be familiar with basic communication techniques. Quality interpretation depends on the interpreter’s knowledge and skills, which should be developed continually.
Interpretive writing should address what readers would like to know, with the authority and wisdom and the humility and care that comes with it.
The overall interpretive program must be capable of attracting support – financial, volunteer, political, administrative – whatever support is needed for the program to flourish.
Interpretation should instil in people the ability, and the desire, to sense the beauty in their surroundings – to provide spiritual uplift and to encourage resource preservation.

32. Beck and Cable’s Principles
Interpreters can promote optimal experiences through intentional and thoughtful program and facility design.
Passion is the essential ingredient for powerful and effective interpretation – passion for the resource and for those people who come to be inspired by the same.
Beck and Cable, 1998,
Interpretation for the 21st Century

33. Essential Elements of Constructivism(Terwilliger, 1995)
PRECONCEPTIONS MATTER
RELEVANCE (PERSONAL MEANING)
CONCEPTUAL LEARNING (V. FACTUAL)
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE (FOLLOWED BY RESTRUCTURE:FREEZE-THAW-REFREEZE)
SUPPORTIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT (PHYSICAL & PSYCHOLOGICAL SAFETY: MASLOW)
ABILITY TO GENERATE, CREATE, PRODUCE, EXHIBIT, DEMONSTRATE

34. Adventure Education
A variety of self-initiated activities utilizing an interaction with the natural environment, that contain elements of real or apparent danger, in which the outcome, while uncertain, can be influenced by the participant and the circumstance.” (Ewert, 1989, p.6)

35. Developmental Stages of Environmental Literacy
Survival
Skills’ Acquisition
Relationships with the land and its inhabitants
Metaphysical feeling “connected” to the place; A feeling of harmony

36. Learning Stages in Teaching Environmental Literacy
SENSORY AWARENESS
SKILLS’ DEVELOPMENT & TRAINING
RELATIONSHIPS (ECOLOGICAL)
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AWARENESS
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ACTION

37. A Model of Outdoor Education Direct Experience
Ecological Relationships
*Environmental Education
(Formal)
*Interpretation
(Non-formal)
Ecotourism/Nature-Based Tourism
Physical Skills
Interpersonal Growth or Educational Skills
Adventure Education

38. Learning Theory Constructivism (Wals, 1987)
Concept Mapping (Novak, 1977; Bosquet, 1981)
Personal Meaning (Ausubel, 1963)
Brain Based (Whole Brain) Learning (Hart, 1983)
Native American Learning Styles (Reyes, 1989)
Cooperative Learning (Johnson & Johnson)

39. Constructivist Teaching Sequence (Driver & Oldham, 1986)
Orientation (motivation)
Elicitation (awareness)
Restructuring (conflict, alternatives)
Application (consolidation, reinforcement)
Review = reflection (learn about learning)

40. Native American Learning (Reyes, 1989)(Multi-Cultural (Banks & Banks))
Use family instructional techniques: Demonstration & imitation
Let children learn from children
Teach through stories and legends
Utilize visual skills (observation, visual discrimination, and spatial configuration)
Employ active learning strategies
Advance holistic intuitive learning (process information from whole to part to understand unity in the large situation)

41. Indian Learning Styles (Banks, J. & Banks, C. (1995)
Indian Learning Styles (Banks, J. & Banks, C. (1995). Handbook of research on multicultural education. Macmillon. Pp
Field dependent/independent learning styles are unreliable, espec. group specific.
Yet, the research literature overview concludes similarly to Native American, Hispanic & African American that these groups tend to be field dependent in their learning styles.

42. Indian Learning Styles (summary)
Prefer visual, spatial, and perceptual information rather than verbal.
Learn privately rather than in public.
Use mental images to remember and understand words and concepts rather than word associations.
Watch and then do rather than employ trial and error.

43. Link to First Nations Learning Model
SuccessInAboriginalLearning/RedefiningSuccessModelsFirstNations.html 

44. Multiple Intelligences (Gardener, 1983)
Verbal-linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Visual-spatial
Body-kinesthetic
Interpersonal (build relationships)
Intrapersonal (look inward)
Naturalist

45. Multiple Intelligence (Gardner, H.,1983)
Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and language as a means to remember information. Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Howard Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related.
Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence.
Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner's view it involves having an effective working model of ourselves, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives.
Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, it entails the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.
Naturalist intelligence enables human beings to recognize, categorize and draw upon certain features of the environment. It 'combines a description of the core ability with a characterization of the role that many cultures value’
Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders and counselors all need a well-developed interpersonal intelligence.
Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined area

46. Have well-formed spatial ability.
Learn best from non-verbal mechanisms.
Learn experientially & in natural settings
Have a generalist orientation, interest in people & things
Value conciseness of speech, slightly varied intonation, & limited vocal range.
Prefer small-group work.
Favor wholistic presentations and visual representations.

47. Model of Responsible Behavior
What is the outcome of in-service training?
In-service can deal with these:
Action Skills
Knowledge of Action Strategies
Knowledge of Issues
Situational Factors
Intention to Act?
Responsible Environmental Behavior
Attitudes
Locus of Control
Personal Responsibility
Personality Factors
Model of Responsible Behavior
(Hines, et al., 1986)

48. Illustration of the models of theory of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980), the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991)
Leppänen, J., 2012

49. Vocational Studies
Life Sciences
Earth Sciences
Social Studies
Communications
Arts, Humanities
Mathematics
Physical Education EE
The Multi-disciplinary (Infusion) Model (Hungerford & Peyton, 1981)

50. Vocational Studies
Life Sciences
Earth Sciences
Social Studies
Communications
Arts, Humanities
Mathematics
Physical Education
The Inter-disciplinary (Insertion or Mono-disciplinary) Model (Hungerford & Peyton, 1981) EE

51. The Outward Bound Process
I. The Learner
Motivated - State of readiness
II. Unique Physical Environment
The use of a novel environment to promote self awareness/ self growth

52. III. Unique Social Environment
Placing people with different backgrounds and abilities together to work toward a common goal creates an interdependence.
IV. Presentation of a Characteristic Set of Problems which Facilitate Mastery (Dissonance. Festinger, L.)

53. A. Prescriptive & Organized
B. Progressive
C. Concrete
D. Manageable
E. Consequential
Every activity has a risk of some sort
F. Holistic
Involves emotional, mental, and physical components.

54. V. Adaptive Dissonance, Mastery, and Attendant Reconstruction
(Anxiety, Mastery, and Reconstruction)
VI. Summary
Golins, G., Walsh, V. (1975)

55. The Outdoor Adventure Pursuits Mix
PEOPLE
•MOTIVATIONS
•SKILLS
•SOCIAL ORIENTATION
•PREFERENCE
OPPORTUNITIES
•SETTINGS
•PROGRAMS
•SUPPORT FACTORS
•ACTIVITIES
REWARDS
•Psychological
•SOCIOLOGICAL
•EDUCATIONAL
•PHYSICAL

56. Influencing Factors on the Outcome of a Risk Activity
Unforeseen beneficial circumstances
Proper training
Personal abilities
Correct decision making
Unforeseen detrimental circumstances
Poor training
Personal inability's
Incorrect decision making
Outcome
greater control
loss of control

57. FEAR MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES
Definition
Comments
•Systematic
desensitization
•Flooding
•Modeling
•Rehearsal
•Gradual exposure
to source
•Useful, time-consuming
•Prolonged exposure
to fear
•Often inappropriate,
can be debilitating
•Learning new coping
methods
•Powerful, can use
instructor behavior
•Very useful but
requires preplanning
and time
•Practicing different
adaptive behaviors

58. Attitude-Behavior Model (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)
Beliefs
about
activity
Attitude
about
activity
Intentions
toward
activity
Behavior
with
activity

59. Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, I. 1991)
Attitude toward the behavior
Behavior
Intention
Subjective norm
Perceived behavioral control