1. CHS AP Psychology Unit 7 Part I : Memory (Cognition) Essential Task 7.2: Outline principles that help improve memory functioning at each stage: encoding - attention, chunking, serial positioning effect, deep versus shallow processing, and rote rehearsal storage - decay theory, elaborative rehearsal, spacing effect, method of loci, and link method retrieval - retroactive interference, proactive interference

2. Storage: Retaining Information Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below:

3. Sensory Memories The shortest retention of all memory stores IF not rehearsed. The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses. Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long Hepatic < 1 sec. long

4. Decay Theory The decay theory argues that the passage of time causes forgetting. The longer information is not accessed, increases the chances of forgetting it.

5. Working Memory Working memory is the new name for short-term memory has a limited capacity (7±2) short duration (20 seconds) When working on its own without help from the Long Term Memory (LTM)

6. Capacity The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information (1956). George Miller You should be able to recall 7±2 letters. M U T G I K T L R S Y P

7. Duration Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating rehearsal. CHJ MKT HIJ 547 544 541 … CH?? The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.

8. Working Memory Duration

9. Long-Term Memory Essentially unlimited capacity store. The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of buried pine seeds during winter and spring.

10. Synaptic Changes Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to synaptic enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002). An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses.

11. Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) LTP is the physical basis for learning: –Drugs that block LTP interfere with learning –Mice engineered to lack an enzyme needed for LTP can’t learn their way out of a maze

12. Stress Hormones & Memory Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events

13. Types of Long Term Memory Explicit memory –Memory for information we can readily express and are aware of having –This information can be intentionally recalled –Episodic Memories - Memories for personal events in a specific time and place –Semantic Memories - Memory for general facts and concepts not linked to a specific time

14. Types of Long Term Memory Implicit memory –Memory for information that we cannot readily express and may not be aware of having –Cannot be intentionally retrieved –Procedural memories: Motor skills and habits –Emotional memories: Learned emotional responses to various stimuli @#$!&

15. Hippocampus Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories.

16. Anterograde Amnesia After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the operation but cannot make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia. Anterograde Amnesia (HM) No New Memories Surgery Memory Intact

17. Cerebellum Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories.

18. Maintaining Long-Term Memory Rote rehearsal –Repetition can result in long-term memory –Only effective if there is intent to learn material –Example: What does a penny look like?

19. Maintaining Long-Term Memory Elaborative rehearsal –Process of relating new information to information already stored in memory –Meaning is assigned to new information and then linked to as much existing knowledge as possible

20. Link Method First imagine a silly, memorable image that represents the type of list you want to remember. Also include in this image the first item on the list (see below for example). This image is your header for the list. Think of another silly, memorable image that links the first item on the list to the second item and so on.

21. Activity Close your eyes Count the number of windows you have in your house

22. Method of Loci (Places) Most of you used the method of Loci to “walk through” your house in your mind and count the windows

23. Retrieval

24. Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store.

25. Measures of Memory Recognition: Identifying the item among other choices Recall: retrieve information with effort Relearning: the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time

26. Retrieval Cues Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. Fire Truck truck red fire heat smoke smell water hose

27. Priming To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming.

28. Where and when matters: Context Effects Situational factors –Recall of information is better if environment is the same as when information was learned State-dependent memory –Recall of information is better if person is in the same physiological state as when information was learned

29. Déjà Vu Déjà Vu means “I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.

30. Parallel Processing Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon is when you can almost recall something, but can’t quite get it. If you leave it your brain will continue to work on this problem eventually surfacing with the answer. Thus you later yell out the name of the actor and everyone looks at you like you are odd.

31. Interference Retroactive interference –Occurs when new information interferes with information already in memory –Retro means old –In this term the old information is being tested –Thus the new information is doing the interference.

32. Try remembering the following number 8132163 Ok that was easy because nothing interfered with you.

33. Now let’s try some interference 4982631 First, consistent with cognitive dissonance theories, we are able to induce optimism or pessimism with the initial (random) wage assignment. With respect to the first-stage task, this implies that we can successfully manipulate one’s ability-beliefs in the lab. Secondly, subjects who received this low piece-rate in stage one were willing to accept significantly lower offers in a second-stage ultimatum game. This finding is striking, demonstrating the presence of both belief manipulation and spillovers of those beliefs into behavioral outcomes in an unrelated and distinct experimental environment.

34. Try remembering the following number 5614982 92589386

35. Retroactive Interference The last two were examples of retro- active interference In each one, it was the OLD (retro) information that was being tested. The last trial was the hardest because it overloaded your modality. So, what type of music should you listen to when you write an essay? –Yep, music with NO LYRICS!

36. Retroactive Interference Sleep helps prevent retroactive interference. Therefore, it leads to better recall.

37. Interference Proactive interference –This is when new information is being tested. –The old information already in your LTM interferes. –It is tough to teach an experienced show dog new tricks. –Psychologists have found that recall of later items can be improved by making them distinctive from early items. For example, people being fed groups of numbers to remember did much better when they were suddenly fed a group of words instead. This is called release from proactive interference

39. I need a volunteer that knows their colors. Don ’ t read the words, just say the colors they ’ re printed in and as fast as you can This is called the stroop effect

40. Red Yellow Green Blue Red Blue Yellow Green Blue Red

41. Interference When you look at the words you see both its color and meaning. When they are in conflict you must make a choice Experience has taught you that word meaning is more important than color so you retrieve that information. You are not always in complete control of what you pay attention to.

42. Schemata A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about something based on past experience Incoming information is fit with existing schemata Schemata can also influence the amount of attention paid to a given event Reconstruction –Memories can be altered with each retrieval –We do this to keep the schemata of our self and our environment