1. LIMBIC SYSTEM
kaan yücel m.d.,ph.d.

2. Outline Introduction to the Limbic System
2. History of the Limbic System
3. Main Players of the Limbic System
4. Functional Anatomy of the Limbic System
Limbic System Dysfunction
5.1. Anatomy of major depressive disorder
5.2. Anatomy of some neuropsychiatric disorders

3. Introduction To the
Limbic System

4. 1.1. What does limbus mean?

6. 1.1. What does limbus mean?
Limbo Lat.
Border Edge Circle Ring

7. 1.2. What is limbic system?
survival
YOUR MISSION IN LIFE?

8. Two main functions
Emotional processing
Motivation
The Anatomy of Behaviour

9. Emotion
Memory
Medial Temporal Lobe
Hippocampus
Parahippocampal gyrus
Amygdala

10. The limbic system works to process our emotions and is related to motivation and with its connections with the cognitive parts of the brain helps us to “use our mind” a.k.a. accomplish mental processes.

11. The limbic system structures are telencephalic & subcortical structures.
The complex network for the process of emotions and is also related to memory and learning in addition to hippocampus, amygdala and parahippocampus includes:
Cingulate gyrus
Hypothalamus
Major areas in the prefrontal cortex
Striatum
Some thalamic nuclei
Orbitofrontal cortex
Septal area
Some medial components of the midbrain (e.g. VTA)
Habenula …
+ white matter tracts

13. 2. HISTORY OF the
Limbic System

16. Dr. William Beecher Scoville
Anterograde amnesIA
H.M.
Henry Gustav Molaison
(1926 –2008)
Dr. William Beecher Scoville
EPILEPSY
Treatment
Bilateral removal of
medial temporal lobe
hippocampus, amygdala & parahippocampal gyrus

17. Names
Phone numbers
SHORT- TERM MEMORY

18. Great Limbic Lobe Le Grand Lobe Limbique
Pierre Paul Broca
Cingulate gyrus (L. cingulated=belt) & parahippocampal gyrus
form a ring on the medial surface of the mammalian brain.

20. Papez Circuit James Papez
A list of structures in the brain and a closed circuit related to emotions

21. Hippocampal formation (Subiculum) → fornix → mammillary bodies
Mammillary bodies → mammillothalamic tract → anterior thalamic nucleus
Anterior thalamic nucleus → genu of the internal capsule → cingulate gyrus
Cingulate gyrus → cingulum → parahippocampal gyrus
Parahippocampal gyrus → entorhinal cortex → perforant pathway → hippocampus.

24. Limbic System
added
Amygdala
Septum
Pre-frontal cortex
to the Papez circuit
Paul D. MacLean

26. Klüver-Bucy Syndrome
bilateral removal of amygdala and hippocampal formation
What happens if we remove the medial temporal lobe of an animal, a monkey?
Became docile;”good monkeys”.
A tendency towards oral behaviour such as attempting to ingest inedible objects.
Hypersexualized behaviour by mounting females of the same and different species.
A compulsion to attend and react to every visual stimulus
No fear.
Change in dietary habits

28. 1848 The patient Phineas Gage
1919 Pneumoencephalography was first introduced.
1936 First “frontal lobotomy” operation was performed on a Kansas housewife.
1958 Nauta added midbrain structures in the limbic system, such as habenula
1967 Freeman operated his last frontal lobotomy and after that this operation was banned.

29. 1974 Ingvar and Franzen first reported frontal lobe hypoperfusion using Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) in a series of chronic schizophrenic patients.
1974 Siemens Medical Solutions (then known as Siemens Medical Engineering) presented the first commercially available computed tomography system.
1975 Ventral striatum concept defined by Heimer
1977 Limbic striatum concept defined by Nauta and Domesick
1977 First MRI scan in history was accomplished.

30. 1982 "Cortical atrophy in schizophrenia and mania: a comparative CT study” published in Journal of Clinical Psychiatry by Nasrallah and his colleagues.
1983 “Ventricular enlargement in child psychiatric patients: a controlled study with planimetric measurements” published in American Journal of Psychiatry by Reiss and his colleagues.
1988 The article of Robert Sapolsky from Stanford University titled as “Glucocorticoid toxicity in the hippocampus: in vitro demonstration” published in the journal Brain Research.

31. 1992 “Anatomic basis of amygdaloid and hippocampal volume measurement by magnetic resonance imaging” published in the journal “Neurology” by Craig Watson and his colleagues.
1994 “Functional magnetic resonance imaging at 1.5 T: activation pattern in schizophrenic patients receiving neuroleptic medication.” published in the journal ”Magnetic Resonance Imaging” by Wenz and his colleagues.

32. 3. MAIN PLAYERS OF the
Limbic System

33. the most famous two guys of the limbic system hippocampus & amygdala

34. 3.1. Hippocampal formation/Hippocampus
Temporal horn of lateral ventricle HC

36. HIPPOCAMPAL FORMATION VS. HIPPOCAMPUS
TERMINOLOGY
HIPPOCAMPAL FORMATION
VS.
HIPPOCAMPUS
1. Hippocampus (proper)
Cornu Ammonis (CA) CA1-CA4
2. Dentate gyrus
3. Subicular complex

38. Fornix [Arch]
The road/white matter tract from the hippocampus
Precommissural fibers 25%
Septal area
Postcommmissural fibers originate from the subicular complex
Mamillary bodies

39. Fornix

41. 3.2. Amygdaloid complex/Amygdala

45. Two main pathways emerging from the amygdala Stria terminalis
terminate in the septal area, the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus, and the bed nucleus of stria terminalis
Ventral amygdalahypothalamic tract (Ventral amygdalofugal pathway)
main projection pathway from the amygdala to the hypothalamus

46. 3.3. Parahippocampal gyrus

47. 3.4. Cingulate gyrus

48. 3.4.1. Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
1=BA25 (subcallosal gyrus) 2=BA24sg (SGPFC)
3=BA32 (paracingulate gyrus)

49. 3.4.2. Posterior cingulate cortex (PCC)
Right Cingulate Cortex
Subgenual prefrontal cortex (SGPFC)
Rostral ACC
Caudal ACC
PCC
Röthlisberger M, Riecher-Rössler A, Aston J, Fusar-Poli P, Radü EW, Borgwardt S. Cingulate volume abnormalities in emerging psychosis. Curr Pharm Des. 2012;18:

51. 3.5. Limbic structures in the Prefrontal cortex (PFC)

52. 3.5. Limbic structures in the Prefrontal cortex (PFC)
DLPFC, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
VLPFC, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex
FP, frontopolar cortex
OFC, orbitofrontal cortex
DMPFC dorsomedial prefrontal cortex
VMPFC, ventromedial prefrontal cortex

53. 3.6. Hypothalamus
Glaser R, Kiecolt-Glaser JK. Stress-induced immune dysfunction: implications for healthNat Rev Immunol Mar;5(3):

54. 3.7. Thalamus Limbic thalamic nuclei Anterior thalamic nuclei
Mediodorsal thalamic nuclei

55. 3. 8. Striatum 4 major nuclei (1) corpus striatum (2) globus pallidus
Caudate nucleus
Putamen
Ventral striatum –nuc.accumbens
(2) globus pallidus
internal and external segments
(3) substantia nigra
pars compacta
pars reticulata
(4) subthalamic nucleus

56. 3.1.9. Basal forebrain nuclei
1. Septal nuclei (medial and lateral)
2. Nucleus of the diagonal band of Broca
3. Basal nucleus of Meynert (a group of neurons in the substantia innominata of the basal forebrain)
4. Bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BNST)
5. Medial ventral pallidum

60. Ventral tegmental area (VTA) midbrain dopamine
3.10. Structures related to the limbic system in the brainstem
Ventral tegmental area (VTA) midbrain
dopamine
Periaqueductal gray matter (PAG) midbrain
Locus coeruleus pons
noradrenaline
Dorsal raphe nuclei brainstem
serotonin
Reticular formation brainstem

61. VENTRAL TEGMENTAL AREA (VTA)
modulates the processing of memory via dopamingergic fibers that terminate in cortical areas related to the limbic system
5 dopaminergic pathways

62. 1. Mesostriatal pathway
Origin: Substantia nigra (and also some from VTA)
to the anteromedial and ventral neostriatum
2. Mesolimbic pathway
Origin: VTA (and also some from substantia nigra)
to the nuc.accumbens, amygdala, ACC, entorhinal cortex, hippocampus
3. Mesocortical pathway
to the neocortex (sensory, motor, and association cortices, such as prefrontal, temporal and insular cortices)
4. Mesodiencephalic pathway
Origin: VTA and Substantia nigra
to the several thalamic and hypothalamic nuclei.
5. Mesorhombencephalic pathway
Origin: VTA- Substantia nigra
to the superior collicilus, reticular formation,PAG, and spinal cord

66. Movement, cognition, emotion, and positive reinforcement are influenced by mesostriatal, mesocortical, and mesolimbic dopamine systems.

67. There is nigral degeneration attending Parkinson's disease and Parkinson’s disease is related to deficit in the nigrastriatal (mesostriatal) pathway and lower tone of dopamine as a result.

68. PERIACQUEDUCTAL GRAY MATTER (PAG)
Anatomic & functional interface
between forebrain &lower brainstem
A major role in integrated behavioral responses to
internal (e.g., pain) or external (e.g., threat) stressors
A critical component of “emotional motor system.”

69. PERIACQUEDUCTAL GRAY MATTER (PAG)
Involvement in affective and motivational processes
Suggested that PAG is a core region involved in human emotion.
A role in emotional coping strategies.
Receives prefrontal and hypothalamic afferents.

70. Habenula
A pair of small nuclei located above the thalamus at its posterior end
Rostral to the posterior commissure
Habenular commissure runs between them

71. 3.11.1. Habenula involved in motivational control of behavior
wide range of behaviors including
Olfaction
Ingestion
Mating
Endocrine and reward function
Pain and analgesia
medial habenular nucleus (MHb)
lateral habenular nucleus (LHb)

72. 3.11.1. Habenula Stria medullaris thalami
Connects hypothalamus and other limbic system structures with habenula
Dorsomedial surface of the thalamus
Limbic system influences the brainstem reticular formation.
Habenulointerpeduncular tract (fasciculus retroflexus)
From habenula to the interpedincular nucleus which is located between the cerebral peduncles in the midbrain.

73. Dorsal diencephalic conduction (DDC) system
Limbic forebrain –midbrain /hindbrain connection
The other is Medial Forebrain Bundle
3 components
Habenula
Stria medullaris
Fasciculus retroflexus
Cognitive processes, in particular relating to spatial learning and attention
Circadian rhythms
Involvement of the LHb in defence responses to stressful stimuli

74. Dorsal diencephalic conduction (DDC) system
DDC circuitry is implicated in various psychological conditions depression
anxiety
schizophrenia
neuropathological responses to addictive drugs

75. Dorsal diencephalic conduction (DDC) system
LHb, serves as a convergence point for limbic and basal ganglia circuits.
Given the broad involvement across numerous functions and behaviors, the region seems to have a basic but vital role as an evaluator, and acts as a major point of convergence where external stimuli is received, evaluated, and redirected for motivation of appropriate behavioral response.

76. 3.11.2. Medial Forebrain Bundle
In addition to the dorsal diencephalon conduction system/circuit, there is the medial forebrain bundle carrying information from the limbic forebrain to the midbrain.
As you might guess, (VTA, dopamine) we are talking about the reward and pleasure. Actually the street drugs like cocaine stimulate MFB.
MFB runs from medial regions of the mesencephalon to forebrain regions, especially the ventral striatal nuclei (e.g., nucleus accumbens) and medial frontal cortices.

77. 3.12. Insula
A cortical structure with extensive connections to many areas of the cortex and limbic system.
Integrates external sensory input with the limbic system and
Integral to the awareness of the body’s internal state (interoception). SELF
Processing emotional and sensory stimuli

78. Anterior insula
Extensive and reciprocal connections to limbic areas, higher-order visual areas, olfactory areas and to the posterior insula
Processing the emotional component of interoceptive awareness , the anticipation and evaluation of emotional stimuli, and self-awareness.
Involved in extending self-awareness to other ‘selves’ through action.
EMPATHY

79. Posterior insula
Reciprocal connections from higher-order visual areas, auditory processing areas, somatosensory areas and to the anterior insula.
Directly experienced, multimodal sensory processing; particularly somatosensory processing

80. 4. FunctIonal anatomy OF the Limbic System

81. Topographical-functional organization
2) Functions of the structures within the circuits of the limbic system

82. 4. 1. Hippocampus and amygdala: Emotions & Memory
Right hippocampus
Left hippocampus
Spatial memory
Verbal memory

83. Anterior hippocampus
rostral hypothalamus and amygdala
HPA-axis control
Stress
Posterior hippocampus
spatial memory

84. Multiple functions of the hippocampus
Learning and memory
Mood regulation - Affect - Emotional Behavior
Regulation of HPA axis
Pain
Erectile function
Attention

85. When you meet someone you know at the street
Hippocampus......
Context
Amygdala.....
Emotions

86. Emotional Memory
Fear
Amygdala

87. 4.2. Reward-Punishment System
Reward is a central component for driving incentive based learning, appropriate responses to stimuli, and the development of goal-directed behaviors.
T he reward circuit comprises several cortical and subcortical regions forming a complex network that mediates different aspects of incentive-based learning, leading to control circuits.

88. Emotions have been defined as a group of interrelated superior cerebral functions, resulting from states of reward and punishment.
Behavioural rewarding conditions reinforce certain reactions
in a quest to experience a favourable result, which brings satisfaction, comfort, or wellbeing.

89. Main neurotransmitter: Dopamine
VTA in midbrain
Serotonin modulates dopamine release.
Glutaminergic inputs from PFC, hippocamps and amygdala to VTA and nucleus accumbens influence the mesocortical dopamine system.
Medial forebain bundle: An important tract between VTA and forebrain

90. ACC
attention, emotional processing and self monitoring
OFC
behavioral inhibition, signaling of expected outcomes and reward/punishment sensitivity.
Understanding the roles of key brain areas in reward requires analysis of network interactions between subareas of the amygdala, nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex, ventral tegmental area and other structures involved in reward and motivation.

91. The projections descending from the PFC to nucleus accumbens, amygdala and other limbic brain regions have regulatory control over reward-seeking behavior.
Here we have four main cores in the reward-punishment systems.
1) VTA in the midbrain
2) Basal ganglia
3) Prefrontal cortex
4) Hippocampus and amygdala

92. * *

93. Cortico-basal ganglia circuit
Reward circuit embedded within
Cortico-basal ganglia circuit
central component for developing and monitoring motivated behaviors
ACC, OFC, ventral striatum, ventral pallidum, midbrain
+ dorsal prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, and lateral habenular nucleus, and specific brainstem structures such as the pedunculopontine nucleus, and the raphe nucleus
key components in regulating the reward circuit
Ventral striatum receives its main cortical input from OFC and ACC, and a massive dopaminergic input from the midbrain.
Fibers from different prefrontal areas converge within subregions of the striatum.
Through the organization of striato-nigro-striatal projections, the VS can influence the dorsal striatum.
The cortico-thalamic projection carries information from reward-related regions, through cognitive, and motor controls.

94. 4.3. Memory & Learning: Anatomy
Learning acquisition of new information
Memory keeping it
Long-term memory
Declerative memory
Medial temporal lobe
Non-declerative (procedural memory)
Striatum

95. 4.3.3. Anatomy of working memory
The network of cortical and subcortical areas typically includes posterior brain regions (eg, visual association areas) that are linked with prefrontal regions to form a circuit.
Particularly, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is involved with working memory.

96. PFC & memory
Whereas the medial temporal lobe has traditionally been associated with the encoding, storage and retrieval of long-term memories, the prefrontal cortex has been linked with cognitive control processes such as selection, engagement, monitoring and inhibition.

97. 4.4. Anatomy of cognition & emotion
Two circuits & Crossing roads
cognition means thinking and emotion means feeling

98. TWO MAIN CIRCUITS IN THE BRAIN COGNITIVE CIRCUIT EMOTION CIRCUIT
DORSAL CIRCUIT VENTRAL CIRCUIT
The cognitive networks inhibit the ventral circuit.

99. Dorsal (cognitive) circuit
Hippocampus
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)
Dorsal regions of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
Parietal cortex
Posterior insular region
Modulates selective attention, planning and effortful regulation of affective state.

100. Ventral (limbic) circuit structures:
Amygdala
Insula (Particularly, anterior insula)
Ventral striatum
Ventral regions of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and medial PFC
We can also add “hippocampus” in the limbic circuit.

101. It is possible that the altered emotional regulation or cognition found in all of these syndromes involves aberrant function of these circuits, but perhaps with different patterns on a molecular level.
Phillips et al. 2003

102. MPFC (medial prefrontal cortex) and related limbic and striato-pallido-thalamic structures organize emotional expression.

103. Cerebellum & vermis
The cerebellum is a great modulator of neurologic function, and that whatever it does to motor control, it also does the same thing to other kinds of behaviors.

104. Cerebellum & vermis
For many years, functions related only to movement, gait, posture, and balance were attributed to the cerebellum.
However, some studies have suggested a possible involvement of the cerebellum in cognition, emotion processing and behavior.

105. Cerebellum & vermis

106. Vermis or posterior vermis
Cerebellum & vermis
Vermis or posterior vermis
Limbic cerebellum
Anterior

107. 4.4.1. Loops through the basal ganglia
Functional anatomy of basal ganglia
5 LOOPS THROUGH THE BASAL GANGLIA
LIMBIC CIRCUIT
Anterior part of ACC- Ventral striatum (nuc.accumbens)
behavior control and adaptation of behaviours after making a mistake. The damage of this circuit results in emotional disorders especially deep apathy and lack of spontaneity. Lowered mood is accompanied by weakening of affect and motor adynamy. It was shown that the anterior cingulate loop is responsible for correcting behavior following a mistake.

108. 4.4.1. Loops through the basal ganglia
Functional anatomy of basal ganglia
5 LOOPS THROUGH THE BASAL GANGLIA
2. PREFRONTAL (ASSOCIATIVE LOOP)
Between DLPFC- head of nuc.caudatus
choice of aims, planning, programming of the sequence of mental actions and behaviours, switching between sentences (the ability to change attitude flexibly), verbal and spatial working memory, selfcontrol and metacognition (self-consciousness)

109. 4.4.1. Loops through the basal ganglia
Functional anatomy of basal ganglia
LATERAL OFC LOOP
Between lateral OFC aand head of nuc.caudatus
initiating social behaviours motivated by an award and in inhibiting behaviours, which can trigger punishment. Incorrect functioning of this circuit may result in disinhibition of behaviours, personality changes, lack of control and emotional liability, as well as irritability and gaiety. The damage of this loop can cause perseverations, which make it difficult to process information from external environment and adaptation of behaviours to a particular situation.

110. Orbito-frontal circuit
socially adjusted behaviour and hampering not socially accepted one
important for the estimation of the risk of the behavior chosen

111. 4.5. White Matter Tracts of the Limbic System
Alveus, fimbria and fornix
Perforant pathway
Cingulum
Septohippocampal tract
Ventral amygdalohypothalamic tract
Mammillothalamic tract (mammillary fasciculus)
Mammillointerpeduncular tract
Mammillotegmental tract
Stria terminalis
Stria medullaris (thalami)
Anterior commissure
Diagonal band of Broca
Habenulointerpeduncular tract

112. 4.5. Default Network

113. 5. LIMBIC SYSTEM
DYSFUNCTION

114. Major Depressive Disorder
Must have a total of 5 symptoms for at least 2 weeks.
One of the symptoms must be depressed mood or loss of interest. 1. Depressed mood.
2. Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all or almost all activities.
3. Significant (>5% body weight) weight loss or gain, or increase or decrease in appetite.
4. Insomnia or hypersomnia.
5. Psychomotor agitation or retardation.
6. Fatigue or loss of energy.
7. Feelings of worthlessness or inappropriate guilt.
8. Diminished concentration or indecisiveness.
9. Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide.

115. Response to stress is about “fight” or “flight”.
In any case, you need some energy to run or have the battle (or go back to sleep- you wake up early and study- or study all night).

116. Response to stress
The sympathetic-adrenomedullary (SAM) system implicated in releasing adrenaline which facilitates the flight/fight response and the HPA axis are regulated by “limbic brain circuits that involve the amygdala, hippocampus and orbital/medial prefrontal cortex.

117. Limbic-cortical-striatal-pallidal-thalamic circuits
Depressed brain
brain networks that normally regulate the evaluative, expressive and experiential aspects of emotional behavior in the pathophysiology of mood disorder
Limbic-cortical-striatal-pallidal-thalamic circuits
(LCSPT)
formed by connections between
Orbital and medial prefrontal cortex (OMPFC)
Amygdala
Hippocampus
Striatum
Thalamic nuclei
Ventral pallidum

118. Depressed brain
The most prominent volumetric abnormality reported to date has been a reduction in gray matter in the left anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) ventral to the corpus callosum genu (i.e., ‘‘subgenual’’).
Reductions in the size of genu and splenium of corpus callosum also have been observed in patients with MDD.

119. Depressed brain Dysregulation Activity
Ventral prefrontal areas; ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC), in subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC) and in the amygdala
Activity
DLPFC, dorsomedial PFC

120. History of abuse in childhood
a significant factor in depression and suicidal diathesis
Hippocampal volume loss
Decrease in ACC volume
with increase in amygdala volume in suicidal patients with MDD

121. some neuropsyhIATRIC DISORDERS
5.2.anatomy of
some neuropsyhIATRIC DISORDERS

122. 5.2.1. Anorexia Nervosa (AN) Common in adolescent girls
Affects 0.3% to 0.7% of the population
Symptoms on eating behavior and body image distortions

123. Anorexia Nervosa (AN)
Disturbances of limbic and cognitive neural circuits -perhaps related to altered serotonin and dopamine metabolism-
Impaired balance between the ventral (limbic) circuit and dorsal (cognitive) circuit

124. Anorexia Nervosa (AN)
ACC; processing the conflict between available behaviors and outcomes e.g., “shall I eat this cake and satisfy my hunger now or shall I not eat this cake and stay thin?”
OFC; adjusts reward valuation based on the current body state of the individual.
DPLFC switches between competing behavioral programs based on the error signal it receives from the ACC.
Insula; interoceptive dysfunction
Striatum; altered reward modulation

125. 5.2.2. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Characterized by intrusive anxiety-provoking thoughts (obsessions) and subsequent repetitive time-consuming ritualistic behaviours (compulsions)
Imbalance between the dorsal and ventral frontal–striatal circuits in the symptoms and cognitive deficits.
Ventral frontal–striatal impairment contributes to the inability to inhibit cognitions and behaviours.
Dorsal frontal–striatal failure contributes to impaired executive performance and enhanced error monitoring processes, corresponding to the patients' frequent feeling that ‘something is wrong’.

126. 5.2.2. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loops; deficits observed in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), PFC, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), thalamus, and caudate nucleus
Orbitofrontal-striatal-thalamic circuits; associated with implicit processing deficit and intrusive symptoms.
Other structures with abnormalities in OCD: insula, amygdala and the white matter tract; cingulum

127. 5.2.3. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Developed by some individuals after exposure to emotionally severe traumatic events such as childhood abuse, war traumas, and natural accidents, among others.
A circuit of brain regions, including the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex (including anterior cingulate), and amygdala, in the symptoms of PTSD.
During emotion regulation, an increase in vmPFC activity is associated with a decrease in amygdala activity as well as a decrease in the experience of negative affect. The relation between vmPFC and amygdala in emotion regulation is suggested to be abnormal in patients with PTSD as well as in MDD.
Insula is also found abnormal in PSTD.

128. Social Phobia
Fear of social or performance situations when the person feels they are under scrutiny by others and fears that they will do something embarrassing or humiliating.
Right DLPFC & left parietal cortex
Greater activation in these areas may be related to planning affective responses and to awareness of body position.
A neural circuit involving the striatum, thalamus, amygdala and cortical structures may provide a framework for integrating much of the current knowledge on the neurobiology of social phobia.

129. 5.2.5. Autism spectrum disorders (ASD)
Characterized by deficits in social interaction, communication, and stereotyped or repetitive behaviors
Increased total brain volume
Most popular structures investigated in ASD:
cerebellum (vermis) & amygdala
Also deficits in
Hippocampus
Striatum.
Fusiform face area (FFA)
Cingulate cortex
Thalamus
Insula
Corpus callosum
Brainstem
Default network

130. 5.2.6. Pathological Gambling (PG)
Inappropriate, persistent, and maladaptive gaming behavior
VTA- OFC
Dysfunction in the cortico-striatal networks from the prefrontal cortex to midbrain
Dysfunction in the DLPFC and ventral striatal networks