1. Theory and Research
Chapter 2

2. Introduction
Theory
An explanation about how and why something is as it is

3. Introduction Concepts
Words or signs that refer to phenomena that share common characteristics
For example, concepts which may interest sociologists are social and economic class and self-esteem.

4. Introduction Conceptualization Example
The process of clarifying what we mean by a concept
Example
High-crime late adolescent years
Begins at about 17 years of age
Birth cohort
People born in a given calendar year

5. Introduction Operational definition Concise definition of the concept
Examples
What is “child abuse”?
Could be only substantiated cases with child protective services.
What is a “problem drinker”?
Could be one who drinks ___ drinks in ___ amount of time.

6. Introduction Variable
A characteristic that can vary from one unit of analysis to another or for one unit of analysis over time
A concept that varies

7. Introduction Hypothesis
A testable statement about how two or more variables are expected to relate to one another
A hypothesis is simply a formal version of a hunch or speculation that usually is based on a theory.

8. Introduction Dependent variable
A variable that is affected or influenced by another variable
What you are trying to predict or explain.

9. Introduction Independent variable
A variable that affects or influences another variable

10. Quiz - Question 1 Assume the following statement:
In our research, we are looking at how gender (male or female) affects the amount of money individuals leave for tips at restaurants.
What is the independent variable?
What is the dependent variable?

11. Quiz - Question 2
In our research, we are looking at how gender (male or female) affects the amount of money individuals leave for tips at restaurants.
What are the independent variable categories?

12. Quiz – Question 3
In our research, we are looking at how gender (male or female) affects the amount of money individuals leave for tips at restaurants.
What is a possible hypothesis that could be generated?

13. Introduction Social Science and Causality A word of caution
Just because two variables are associated with each other does not necessarily mean that the change in one variable will create a change in the other variable
Establishing causality is difficult
Typical data gathering techniques make it difficult to determine “cause” and “effect”

14. Introduction Antecedent variable
A variable that comes before both the independent variable and dependent variable
May explain the association between the independent variables and the dependent variable

15. Introduction Causality Example
Firefighters will tell you of the association between the number of firefighters at a fire and the damage done at the fire, that the more firefighters at a fire, the more damage occurs.
What is the independent variable?
What is the dependent variable?
Can you think of an antecedent variable that explains why fires that draw more firefighters are more likely to do more damage than fires that draw fewer firefighters?

16. Introduction Spurious – non-causal
When an antecedent variable provides such an explanation as in the fire fighter example, the original association between the independent variable and the dependent variable is said to be spurious, or non-causal.

17. Introduction Establishing causality Empirical association
Temporal precedence
Elimination of alternative explanations

18. Introduction Intervening variable
A variable that comes between an independent and a dependent variable

19. Introduction Extraneous variable
A variable that has an effect on the dependent variable in addition to the effect of the independent variable

20. The Relationship between Theory and Research
An explanation about how and why something is
It allows you to go beyond the known facts, suggesting what you might expect in the future, and allowing you to organize the facts you already have.

21. The Relationship between Theory and Research
Focal research
Excerpt from “Moving on: Continuity and change after retirement”
Adler and Clark’s description of “role theory” comes at the beginning of their article, before they present their own research.

22. The Relationship between Theory and Research
Measurement
The process of devising strategies for classifying subjects by categories to represent variable concepts.
Example from Adler and Clark focal research
Classified units of analysis (people around retirement age) by categories (those who engaged in volunteer work and those that didn’t) to represent variable concepts (volunteering).

23. The Relationship between Theory and Research
Deductive reasoning
Reasoning that moves from more general to less general statements.
Example
Adler and Clark focal research

24. The Relationship between Theory and Research

25. The Relationship between Theory and Research
Empirical generalization
A statement that summarizes a set of individual observations

26. The Relationship between Theory and Research
Focal research
Excerpt from “Unmasking racism: Halloween costuming and engagement of the racial order”
Mueller, Dirks and Picca’s theory of what might be called the functions of cross-racial costuming by white students during Halloween comes at the end of their article, after the presentation of their findings.

27. The Relationship between Theory and Research
Inductive reasoning
Reasoning that moves from less general to more general statements
Example
Mueller, Dirks and Picca’s focal research

28. The Relationship between Theory and Research
Grounded theory
Theory derived from data in the course of a study

29. The Relationship between Theory and Research

30. The Relationship between Theory and Research

31. Summary Relationships existing between research and theory Ethics
Ethical assumptions and implications should be considered throughout the whole research process.