1. Perspectives Continued: The Cognitive Perspective: Goal Setting and Self regulation

2. MODULE ONE: PERSPECTIVES
Over the next four weeks, we will investigate the following motivational themes/perspectives:
1. Week one: evolutionary perspectives:
2. Week two temperament- Elliott and Thrash, 2002
3. Week Three: self regulation-
Research: Carver, 2004
4. Week Four
A. learning: habits (summarize)
B. cognitive dissonance (summarize) week three

3. The Cognitive Perspective on Motivation
Cognitions-mental events
The cognitive perspective on motivation
How does a person’s way of thinking and believing influence (motivate) behavior?
Includes mental constructs like beliefs, expectations, goals, plans, judgments, values, and the self-concept
Our Focus: Goal Setting, Implementing, Threat Assessment, Avoidance and Self regulation

4. Schematic of the TOTE Model
Historical Model--
PLANS: The TOTE Model
The cognitive mechanism by which plans were believed to energize and direct behavior.
If Incongruous
TEST
Compare
Present State
With Ideal State
OPERATE
Act on
Environment
To Realize
Ideal State
TEST
Compare
Present State
With Ideal State
If Incongruous
If congruous
George Miller was considered a pioneer in the study of the current day cognitive study of motivation. Above is a model he constructed that depicts a relationship between the cognitive construct called “planning” and behavior.
According to this cognitive model, we have mental representations of our idealized behaviors, objects, and events. We have an idea of how we’d like to look, how academically, socially, professionally successful we should be…where our pets go to the bathroom…basically anything that we perceive to have some level of control over, we have an idealized image of how that thing or event should be to us. Simultaneously, we are also aware of our current status with respect to that idealized end…we know how we look, whether we are performing well, whether our pets are going in the ideal location.
If we detect a mismatch (Depicted as “TEST” in the diagram), we feel discomfort. That discomfort is motivating and causes us to formulate a plan and execute that plan into action (Depicted as “OPERATE” in the diagram). So the incongruity provides the energy to act and the plan provides the direction to get us closer to the ideal state.
Following the model, after a period of action, we then test the present state against the ideal, and as long as a discrepancy exists, we continue to operate on the environment until congruity between the ideal and current state is achieved.
This model was beneficial, in that it nicely depicted the moment to moment influence that cognitive planning has on our behavior.
For example, your text mentions actions directed at achieveing a “good hair day”. This model implies that we must have an ideal hair style in mind…so we fix our hair, look in the mirror and perform the test. If there is a discrepancy, a plan to fix our hair is devised and implemented. A test is run again, a plan of action is initiated and this test, operate sequence continues until we have reached the ideal…or run out of hair product, I guess.
To see an example:
= motivational energy
= motivational direction
EXIT
Present State in
Congruity with
Ideal State
Schematic of the TOTE Model

5. Historical Model-- PLANS: Criticism
In summary:
We detect and inconsistency
We formulate and enact a plan
Plans are viewed as fixed and static
Contemporary cognitive models allow a more dynamic and flexible depiction of plan-directed behavior
Rather than activating an action sequence, incongruity gives rise to corrective motivation which can take many forms:
Change the plan, change the behavior’s intensity, or drop the plan altogether
Plans are viewed as fixed and static and become automatic as further discrepancy is detected
Contemporary cognitive models allow a more realistic depiction in which plans are adjustable and able to be revised
Note the flexibility of plan choice seen in the rubix cube video…although the action was really fast and probably not intelligible to us, the labeling of the action showed us that different plans were being enacted in the process of reaching the ideal solved state for the rubix cube.

6. Ideal state represents
The Motivating properties of
Discrepancy
Ideal state represents
how the persons
wishes life was going.
Present state represents the persons
current status of how life is going.
Present
State
Ideal
State
In instances of discrepancy, the person first envisions possible outcomes that are different from the present situation. The awareness of the mismatch between the present and what is desired creates a sense of incongruity that is motivating. You textbook mentions a very powerful application of this depiction of the motivation power of discrepancy: it reads, “ Therefore, when people ask” What can I do to increase motivation?” those who study discrepancy-based motivation have a very practical answer: basically create an ideal state in your mind, or more precisely, create a present state-ideal state discrepancy
When the present state falls short of the hoped-for ideal state, a discrepancy is exposed.
It is the discrepancy-rather than the ideal state per se– that has motivational properties.
Discrepancy creates the sense of wanting to change the present state so that it will move
closer and closer toward the ideal state.

7. Two Types of Discrepancy
Discrepancy Reduction
Discrepancy Creation
Based on the discrepancy-detecting
feedback that underlies plans and
corrective motivation.
Based on a “feed-forward” system
in which the person looks forward
and proactively sets a future,
higher goal.
Reduction underlies plans and corrective motivation. It is initiated after receiving feedback about how well performance lines up with idealized performance. (So the behavior has already been enacted, now we are evaluating it). We determine then, whether we are performing at a desired level.
Creation occurs before a behavior is initiated. It is the starting point for any specific performance setting.
Discrepancy reduction corresponds
to plan-based corrective motivation.
Discrepancy reduction is reactive,
deficiency overcoming, and revolves
around a feedback system.
Discrepancy creation corresponds to goal-setting motivation.
Discrepancy creating is proactive, growth pursuing, and revolves around a “feed-forward” system.

8. Updating the TOTE Model
New areas of research followed the TOTE model
Modifications:
Goal setting
The importance of Feedback
Self regulation of goal attainment and threat avoidance

9. Goal Setting Why do goals work to increase performance?
A goal is whatever an individual is trying to accomplish.
Goal Setting
* A goal is whatever an individual is trying to accomplish.
Goals clarify performance expectations..
Goals counteract apathy, boredom.
Goals make feedback important.
Without goals, performance can be emotionally unimportant.
Goal attainment can generate feeling of pride, satisfaction, or competence that the task itself cannot generate.
Why do goals work to increase performance?
A proactive version of a plan
They are motivating—force us to focus on a discrepancy between present and ideal level of accomplishment

10. Adaptive Value of Goal Setting
Setting goals yields higher quality performance
Examples:
Sit-ups, weightlifting, learn textbook information, sell products, shoot archery, conserve natural resources, lose weight, logging, word process, truck driving trips
A few qualifiers though: goal effectiveness depends upon two factors: goal difficulty and goal specificity
*A note here: in all of the remaining slides on goal setting, it is implicitly assumed that an individual has set a goal..or someone has set a goal for them and that person has ACCEPTED the goal and is producing behavior in an attempt to meet that goal. See the section in your text on goal acceptance for why this may not always be the case.
In general, a person will perform better at almost any task if they set a goal for themselves than if they don’t. Given the same ability and experience, those who set goals will outperform those who don’t. 10

11. Adaptive Value of Goal Setting
Linear relationship between difficulty and performance
Performance
In general, goals that are of higher difficulty translate into enhanced performance. Easier goals yield decreased performance.
So if we have a goal of running up 20 flights of stairs, a goal of running 30 flights would be more difficult. They yield increased performance because, when considering the definition of motivation, difficult goals energize the performer (they work on the initiation aspect of motivation). We tend to exert effort in proportion to what the goal requires of us (again, assuming the goal is accepted…if goals are too lofty, we see a decrement in perf). So easy goals stim little effort, moderately challenging goals stimulate moderate effort, and difficult goals stimulate high effort.
Goal Difficulty 11

12. Adaptive Value of Goals Setting
Specificity
How clearly a goal conveys expectations
“Do your best” vs. “Get out your spelling list, rehearse the word list 4 times and write each word 4 times”
Specific=including something numerical
Specificity produces consistency in performance across individuals
Specificity refers to how clearly a goal informs the performer of what is to be done.
Do your best is a goal, but it is an ambiguous one that leaves wide open the opportunity for people to apply multiple translations and yields highly variable performance. So one might look at the list, one might stick it under their pillow the night before, one might rehearse it 20 times.
Specificity is important because it causes people to focus their attention on what needs to be done and minimizes interpretation and performance variability 12

13. Adaptive Value
Summary: Goals will enhance performance under specific circumstances:
Difficult goals
Energize the performer
Increase effort and persistence
Specific goals
Direct the performer toward a specific course of actions, increase mental and behavioral focus
They tell the person where to concentrate attention and what specifically to do
So…specific, difficult goals raise performance, yielding a net decrease in the ideal performance-actual performance discrepancy
By energizing the performer, difficult goals increase the performer’s effort and persistence. They increase persistence because effort continues until the goal is reached. They make it less likely that the person will stop prematurely
Specific goals also decrease the probability that the performer will be distracted away from the task.
Example: I do “insanity workouts”. I never really set goals when I first started them and I noticed myself not keeping up and it made me actually kind of psyche myself out and not want to do them. So…one evening, I specifically said to myself, just do my best…this isn’t a competition. I noticed that I stopped through almost every exercise during the final 15 minutes of the workout and was mentally and physically exhausted and lacked focus. It was like I was trying to do the workout without actually being in the room, doing the workout The next time I did that work out, I made a specific and difficult goal that I would only stop for water after every 4 exercises. I made it through the workout and felt physically tired, but mentally sharp and energized—and I had worked substantially harder than during the previous attempt. So, I have specifically seen performance benefits when I set difficult and specific exercise goals for myself. 13

14. Caution:
It is not automatic that proper goal setting will yield performance gains:
Performance depends on other factors, besides motivation:
Ability, training, coaching, resources
So, if two performers have comparable ability, training, coaching and resources, then performers with difficult and specific goals will likely outperform performers without those kinds of goals. Practically speaking, when goals fail to affect performance, it may not be a problem with the goal, but rather with those other factors..so coaching, training, ability, and resources should also be evaluated when considering causes for poor performance. 14

15. The Adaptive Value of Feedback
Feedback documents the performer’s
progress towards goal attainment.
The Fundamental Importance of Feedback
or, Knowledge of Results
The Adaptive Value of Feedback
Above-standard
At-standard
Below-standard
(1) Feedback defines performance
Therefore, instructive to future goal setting efforts
Goal setting is only as effective as the quality of the feedback that one receives after executing behavior to achieve that goal
Imagine how useless a goal of running a 6 minute mile would be without a stop watch! Imagine how useless it would to be have a goal of getting an A in the class if you never received test results. There would be no way of informing the performer how they are progressing or whether they are reducing the current state-ideal state discrepancy.
One needs BOTH a goal and feedback in order to maximize performance
(First read over 1 and 2 in slide and then discuss them together with the text below)
Adaptive value
Providing emotional satisfaction or dissatisfaction
That emotional response is also motivating
Satisfaction breeds excitement, competence and perhaps goal revision to a greater difficulty level
Dissatisfaction yield awareness of a discrepancy and causes us to exert a great effort to minimize the discrepancy
(2) Feedback acts as a reinforcer (or punisher)

16. Summary of the Goal-Setting Process
Figure 8.3

17. Application: Goal Striving, Threat Avoidance and the Role of Affect
The current research article
Carver, 2004: Self Regulation of Action and Affect
Self-regulation involves the person’s metacognitive (self) monitoring of how his or her goal-setting progress is going.
It is our ability to transform mental abilities into task related skills
In other words, it involves self monitoring of your behavior AND evaluation of the productivity of that behavior in achieving a goal or avoiding a threat

18. Application: Goal Striving, Threat Avoidance and the Role of Affect
Some background info on this cognitive model
“Cybernetic Model”
Interdisciplinary study of the structure of complex systems
A cybernetic model works ONLY in a closed loop fashion.
Purpose: to define the functions and workings of systems that have goals and participate in a circular causal chain that moves from
action (behavior),
to sensing (one’s current situation),
to comparison (of situation with an ideal) that will prompt further action
Carver uses the word “cybernetic” to describe what this model is and how it works.
Interdisciplinary study of the structure of complex systems: involves describing how communication processes, control mechanisms and feedback processes work. So, it too relies on feedback and produces a diagram of this feedback system in action to show how we behave when employing self regulation.
A cybernetic model is a useful descriptor here, because by definition, cybernetic models are those models that work ONLY in a closed loop fashion.
What that means is that Carver sets up the specific items in that model, joins them with arrows, and those arrows form a circle (closed loop)…so that ONLY the items in the model affect it. They relate to eachother and run together in a circular fashion. Specifically, action only within the loop’s environment will cause a change within that environment.
That change that occurs is manifest via feedback that will affect how the system behaves.

19. Application: Goal Striving, Threat Avoidance and the Role of Affect
Why cybernetic models do a better job of describing human behavior than the TOTE model
Shows how we can handle multiple tasks
Depicts our ability to focus on multiple goals at once
Why cybernetic models do a better job of describing human behavior than the TOTE model
Shows how we can handle multiple tasks
Depicts our ability to focus on multiple goals at once and how that focus translates into a stream of actions that can shift repeatedly from one goal to another

20. Application: Goal Striving, Threat Avoidance and the Role of Affect
Some background info on this cognitive model
Definitions:
“Discrepancy Reducing” Behavior Feedback Loop
Behavior is produced to REDUCE any discrepancy between a goal (ideal state) and one’s perception of a current behavior (current state)
Follows all of the properties of “Discrepancy-Reduction” planning and goal seen in previous slides
Kinds of discrepancy that is produced: behavior is not close enough; behavior has exceeded ideal
Behaviors that are produced from perceived discrepancies are vastly different, depending upon whether the discrepancy indicates failure to meet the goal or exceeding the goal

21. Application: Goal Striving, Threat Avoidance and the Role of Affect
Some background info on this cognitive model
Definitions:
“Discrepancy Enhancing” Behavior Feedback Loop
Behavior is produced to push you away from, or to move away from, a threat (ideal state), also called an “anti-goal”
This loop acts to ENLARGE the discrepancy between the anti-goal and the current perception
Kinds of discrepancy that is produced: behavior takes the person too close to the threat; behavior has kept the person further from away from the threat
Behaviors that are produced from perceived discrepancies are vastly different, depending upon whether the discrepancy indicates failure to avoid the threat or exceeding the threat

22. Application: Goal Striving, Threat Avoidance and the Role of Affect
Some background info on this cognitive model
Definitions:
“Affect” Loop
Affect indicates our desires and whether those desires are being met
Loop works simultaneously with a behavior feedback loop
Here, a comparison is made between one’s current RATE of progress toward a goal (or away from a threat) and one’s ideal RATE of progress.
Types of discrepancy:
you are not going fast enough
You are going too fast
The kinds of affects that are produced will vary depending upon the following:
Whether the reference concerns a goal or a threat
Whether the rate is too slow or faster than intended

23. Hints to Guide Your Reading
Note: the following are suggestions that will IMMENSELY assist you in taking the quiz and especially in preparing you for your exam…please be sure to do this as you are reading, or as soon as you finish
Reading: pgs 13-top of pg 27
First, re-draw Carver’s model of self regulation (figure 2.1)
Secondly, define each of the terms in the model
Thirdly, please execute one iteration (that means use the model in a step by step fashion) of the model with respect to a goal that you have in this class. Here’s how:
First…imagine a good “Reference Value” (goal)…one with some sort of numerical value in it (recall, a difficult and a specific goal yields best performance)
You also determine “The Current Input”, execute “The Comparator” and determine an “Output”
Imagine this “Disturbance”: you experience car trouble and are certain your school work will have to be put off for an entire day while it gets fixed.
Determine this disturbance’s “Effect on the Environment”, and re-run the rest of the model to see how your output could likely be affected.
Next, instead of using a Goal as a “Reference Value”, now substitute this “Threat: you have determined that to avoid any contact with a car, it is best to cross a street when vehicles are at least 100 feet away from you. “ What would be the result of the comparator function? What would be a possible output?

24. Hints to Guide Your Reading
Questions for Reflection:
What kind of affect occurs when a goal is going well? What type of behavior is likely produced?
What kind of emotion occurs when a goal is going poorly? What type of behavior is likely produced?
What kind of affect occurs when a threat is going well (is being avoided)? What type of behavior is likely produced?
What kind of affect occurs when a threat is going poorly (you are getting closer to the threat value)? What type of behavior is likely produced?
In which type of behavior feedback loop are you trying to produce an output that moves you closer to the ideal?
In which behavior feedback loop are you trying to produce an output that moves you away from the ideal?
How do these cybernetic models indicate when you could or should shift from one reference situation to another. For example, how do you know, according to these models, when to shift from the reference of “spending time with my significant other” to the reference of “earning a 90% on my chemistry exam”?

25. Discussion Group Case Study
The goal of this case study is to get you to consider why or how failures in self regulation could occur.
Janie, a person with an avoidant temperament approaches you, a clinical psychologist, and indicates that she is having an anxiety problem. Specifically, she suffers from “generalized anxiety” which means that she is chronically anxious and really doesn’t know why. In other words, nothing in her environment triggers anxiety, per se, she just feels anxious all the time.
Why should this make sense to you, knowing that she has an avoidant, rather than an approach temperament?
You decide to use a cognitive therapy strategy to assist her in alleviating her anxiety. In preparation for your first counseling session, you create a cybernetic behavioral and affective feedback loop that would indicate how an anxiety disorder would occur (NOTE: the KIND of behavior feedback loop you use is critical to understanding this task)
So, pick you behavior loop. Next indicate how a malfunction in the components would likely create chronic anxiety that would lead to her anxiety disorder. Look at each component, consider how it should function for a person to have a normal affective life, and then consider how that specific component could work improperly, thereby causing an erroneous affective output.
After identifying all of the possible malfunctions, focus in on one and formulate a strategy to help her regain adaptive self regulation that would decrease her anxiety disorder.
Discuss your thoughts with your group, then post your collective feedback loop and explanation of the malfunction within the class discussion.
MAKE THE QUIZ!!!