1. Lectures on English Grammar, 11
BA, 2nd semester
Attitudes to situations
Torben Thrane

2. Communications Model Context Sender Message Receiver Code Channel

3. Speaker’s attitudes towards described situations
Context
Channel
Sender
Message
Receiver
Channel
Code

4. Attitude reports and modalities
Two areas of grammar:
propositional attitudes - speech acts and performatives
the speaker’s attitude towards the described situation
modality - modal verbs and adverbs
the speaker’s judgement of the described situation

5. Attitude and modality markers
Complement
I think that you should leave
I think
should
you leave
[subordination marker]
[Attitude marker]
[modality marker]
[proposition]

6. Attitude reports These verbs are also called
I think
These verbs are also called
‘cognitive’ or ‘mental’ verbs.
I believe
I trust
I know
(that) everybody is bringing something to eat
I regret
I suppose
Grammatically, they demand
a clause as complement
I understand
I wish
etc.

7. Structural types of AR verbs (incomplete)
Direct object
John wished (that) the show started at 8
‘that’-clause
John knew what the show was about
‘what’-clause
John wished to wait for the bus
infinitive-clause
John wished for Jill to wait for the bus
for-infinitive-clause
There is great individual variation from verb to verb with
respect to complementation type.

8. Performatives John promised that he would bring something to eat
John warned us that he would bring something to eat
John threatened that he would bring something to eat
They asked if John would be chef for the evening
They appointed John chef of the evening
They christened their new baby John
etc

9. Speech acts (1) Promises Warnings Threats Questions Appointments
- are ‘things’ that only exist in
the world because someone has
said something on some occasion
Warnings
Threats
They are the results of particular
speech acts.
Questions
Appointments
The study of speech acts - how they
are performed, what linguistic re-
sources are involved, what formal
properties they have, etc. - is a
central concern of pragmatics.
Christenings
etc.

10. Speech acts (2) Verbs that designate speech acts are called
‘performative’ or ‘communication’ verbs
Grammatically, they take a clause as comple-
ment, sometimes with an extra NP or to+NP
as indirect object

11. The structure of AR & SA verbs

12. Structural types of SA verbs (incomplete)
Direct object
John said (that) the show started at 8
‘that’-clause
John said what the show was about
‘what’-clause
John said to wait for the bus
infinitive-clause
John said for Jill to wait for the bus
for-infinitive-clause
Note for Danes: explain
John forklarede os hvad stykket handlede om
*John forklarede til os hvad stykket handlede om
*John explained us what the play was about
John explained to us what the play was about

13. Epistemic modality (again)
Last lecture dealt among other things with the
distinction between fact and possibility
Possibility is a notion which together with its opposite -
Necessity - forms the type of modality which is called
EPISTEMIC
There are two other main types of modality:
DEONTIC and PRAGMATIC

14. Deontic modality Speaker’s judgement of the described situation:
I think that you should leave
… but there is more to it
The subject ’s judgment of the described situation
John thinks that you should leave
‘Circumstantial propriety’ of the described situation
(It’s 3 o’clock in the morning) you should leave

15. ‘Circumstantial propriety’
There are basically two sources of authority that regulate
behaviour:
The set of moral codes and norms in society
Thou shalt not kill
The set of legal rules and regulations in society
All traffic must turn left

16. Modal meanings Epistemic Deontic Pragmatic (Logical) necessity
Obligation
Insistence
(Logical) possibility
Permission
Ability
X insists on Y =
X is not able not to Y
It is necessary that P =
It is not possible that not-P
X is obliged to Y =
X is not permitted not to Y
It is possible that P =
It is not necessary that not-P
X is permitted to Y =
X is not obliged not to Y
X is able to Y =
X does not insist on not-Y

17. Modal verbs Epistemic Deontic Pragmatic You can go now Permission
Ability
You could go now
Possibility
Ability
You may go now
Possibility
Permission
You might go now
Possibility
You must go now
Necessity
Obligation
You ought to go now
Obligation
You shall go now
Obligation
Insistence
You should go now
Necessity
Obligation
You will go now
Obligation
Ability
You would go now
Insistence

18. Possibility, permission and ability
You can go now
As I do not prevent you, and you are able,
you go now
You could go now
As you are able to, it is possible that...
You may go now
As there is nothing, including me, to prevent you, it is possible that...
You might go now
As there is nothing to prevent you, it is possible that...

19. Necessity, obligation and insistence
You must go now
Circumstances/I demand that you go
You ought to go now
Circumstances dictate that you go now
You shall go now
I demand/insist that you go now
You should go now
Circumstances demand that you go now
You will go now
Oblige me, since you are able, to go now

20. Deontic modality (1) Hypothesis (permission) Time Fact US
Potential (pragmatic)
Time
Necessity (obligation)

21. Deontic modality (2) can could may must ought to shall should will
Hypothesis (permission)
could
may
Time
must
ought to
Potential
(pragmatic)
Fact US
shall
should
will
Time
would
Necessity (obligation)

22. Semi-modals dare not need not have to had better have got to be to
pragmatic
need not
epistemic
have to
deontic
had better
deontic
have got to
deontic
be to
pragmatic
be about to
pragmatic
be going to
pragmatic
be sure to
epistemic

23. Modal adverbs actually obviously possibly necessarily surely
pragmatic
obviously
pragmatic
possibly
epistemic
necessarily
epistemic
surely
epistemic
undoubtedley
epistemic
perhaps
epistemic
certainly
epistemic
probably
epistemic
etc. etc.

24. The structure of Modal Aux and Adverbs