1. Argumentation: The Appeal to Reason

2. Argument A reasoned, logical way of asserting the soundness of a position, belief, or conclusion. Take a stand. Support your position with evidence. Urge others to share your perspective.

3. The Purpose To convince others to accept– or at least acknowledge the validity of– your position To defend your position, even if others cannot be convinced to agree To question or refute a position you believe to be misguided, untrue, dangerous, or evil

4. Argument vs. Persuasion Argument and persuasion are not equivalent. Persuasion is a general term that refers to the method by which a writer moves an audience to adopt a belief or to take action.

5. What is the purpose? Argumentation appeals to reason and is composed of a series of statements that lead logically to a conclusion. The purpose: to demonstrate to an audience that certain ideas are valid and that others are not.

6. Choosing a Topic Choose a topic that interests you. Be open-minded and willing to consider all sides of a question. Consider the topic from other people’s viewpoints so that you understand what they believe and can use this knowledge to build a logical case.

7. Taking a Stand After you have chosen your topic, you are ready to take a stand– to state the position you will argue in the form of a thesis. Thesis: Solar power is the best available solution to the impending energy crisis. 1. You believe there will be an energy crisis. 2. There is more than one possible solution. 3. Solar energy is a better solution than any other.

8. Is the Topic Debatable? There is no point in arguing a statement that people regard as self-evident. A good argument contains an antithesis. Thesis: Because immigrants have contributed much to the development of the U.S., immigration quotas should be relaxed. Antithesis: Even though immigrants have contributed much to the development of the U.S., immigration quotas should not be relaxed.

9. Gathering Evidence All the points you make in your paper must be supported. If they are not, your audience will dismiss them as unclear or unfounded. You can sometimes support a statement with appeals to pathos (emotion), but most of the time you support your points with logos– by providing logical evidence to support your position

10. Kinds of Evidence Evidence can be fact or opinion Facts: most believe them to be true, and they can be verified independently. Opinions: not all of them are equally convincing. Go with the opinions of experts rather than individuals.

11. Criteria for Evidence Relevant: use examples that support your points. Do not digress! Representative: include a full range of opinions about your subject, not just one side or the other. Sufficient: include enough evidence to support your claims. Consider your audience! Skeptics need much more proof!

12. Deductive vs. Inductive Deductive arguments use syllogism 1. Major premise: All Olympic runners are fast. 2. Minor premise: Florence Griffith Joyner is an Olympic runner. 3. Conclusion: Therefore, Florence Griffith Joyner is fast.

13. Deductive The Declaration of Independence 1. Major premise: Tyrannical rulers deserve no loyalty. 2. Minor premise: King George III is a tyrannical ruler. 3. Conclusion: Therefore, King George III deserves no loyalty. Why is this argument valid?

14. Invalidating an Argument Major premise: All dogs are animals. Minor premise: All cats are animals. Conclusion: Therefore, all dogs are cats. Both premises are true, but cats are not included in the major premise of the syllogism. If the syllogism is defective, the argument is invalid.

15. Arranging the parts is simple: Introduce the topic of the paper and the thesis statement (The thesis statement is almost always at the end of the introduction) State the facts of the case Prove the thesis with your arguments Disprove your opponents arguments End the essay

16. There may be times that you will disprove opposing arguments before proving your own; it will depend upon the arguments and your readers. There may also be times when the statement of the facts will be the introduction to your paper (with the thesis statement following the statement of facts)

17. INTRODUCTION The introduction should catch and hold the readers’ attention and focus their attention on the thesis statement. The thesis statement (your topic, attitude about the topic, and, possibly, audience) is usually found as a single sentence at the end of the introduction.

18. STATEMENT OF FACTS The statement of the facts may contain circumstances, details, summaries, and narration. It is a non-argumentative presentation of the facts concerning the situation or problem under discussion. In other words, you simply discuss the problem objectively without trying to persuade the reader.

19. This section informs the readers about the facts of the case, reminds the readers of certain events or details (often through the use of summary), establishes the reason why you have the authority to speak on the topic, or provides a vivid illustration, real or fictional, showing the significance of the topic. It should be brief, and vivid. If you obscure the facts, you are defeating the purpose. Delete irrelevant information and information which contributes little to the reader’s understanding.

20. CONFIRMATION The confirmation is where you provide your arguments. This is the central part of the essay and often the longest section. With the audience rendered attentive by the introduction and informed by the statement of fact, you show why your position concerning the facts should be accepted and believed.

21. Your argument will be more effective if you give concrete examples from: history politics literature It also will be more effective if you go into detail as to why these examples prove your point. The more specific you are, the better your argument will be.

22. Yes, you can use personal experiences – but remember ---- It’s like a diving competition where you must consider the level of difficulty ---- If you have an easy dive – the level of difficulty is low – and you have to have an almost perfect dive If you talk about personal experience, your level of difficulty is low – and your writing must be close to perfect!

23. REFUTATION Usually you deny the truth of one of the premises on which the opposing argument is built, or you can object to the inferences drawn by the opposition from premises which cannot be broken down. If your opponent states that the sales of a company shot up over 25% after using a musical jingle in an advertising campaign, you could counter by saying that the statement is true, but the reason sales increased was because of a 15% cut in prices. Look at logical fallacies to see some common errors in reasoning.

24. CONCLUSION The conclusion in this type of essay should: render the audience to be well disposed to you and ill-disposed toward your opponent, magnify your points and minimize your opposition, put the audience in the proper mood, and/or refresh the memory of the audience by summarizing the main points of the argument.