1. MLS 570 Critical Thinking Reading Notes Fogelin: Ch. 1 Fall Term 2006 North Central College Dr. Sally Fowler

2. THE WEB OF LANGUAGE  Language & Argument LANGUAGE is a shared set of conventions that allow us to communicate. An ARGUMENT is  Giving reasons for or against some claim  And also a linguistic activity that we can only do with words.  Language & Convention Language is conventional, but not arbitrary. The meaning of what we say is dependent on convention, but the truth of what we say is not.

3. Levels of Language  Linguistic Acts Semantic conventions give meaning to individual words Syntactic conventions lay down rules for combining words into meaningful wholes.. FOR DISCUSSION: When someone hums a tune, do they perform a linguistic act? Why or why not? Can a speaker mispronounce something without performing a linguistic act? Why or why not?

4. SPEECH ACTS  Performatives: are sentences that actually DO something.  Rather than stating something these sentences bring something about  The words themselves effect a CHANGE [umpire/minister/judge]  Explicit Performatives Must pass the “thereby test” In saying “I--------, I thereby -------. In addition the context of the utterance must be appropriate.

5. Explicit Performatives [continued …]  Examples: “I promise to meet you tomorrow at 10am.”  “BUT I’ll meet you tomorrow” is not a performative as it may be a prediction that could be false and it also doesn’t pass the “thereby test” [ You would still have to actually MEET them] “I bid $60.” [said at an auction]  BUT “I bid $60 on eBay for the ring” is not a performative as it is a statement of something you already did and doesn’t pass the “thereby test” “I apologize” is a performative. “I am sorry” is NOT a performative. ex I, II, III[6e] do together

6. Speech Acts II  Speech Acts are a level of language distinct from linguistic acts where, rather than stating an idea or making a claim, we in fact do what the verb says through our speaking.  Examples: promising resigning swearing apologizing refusing stating asserting describing questioning concluding. Hawkins vs. McGee – How would you settle case? Rhode Island vs. Innis – were those “speech acts of interrogation”?

7. Speech Act Rules: What you need to ask 1. Must a person have a special position in order to perform the speech act? Examples? 2. What facts are presupposed in the use of the speech act? Examples? 3. Is any response or uptake needed to complete the speech act? Examples? 4. What feelings and beliefs is the person performing the speech act expected to have? Examples? Ex IV [6e] [sg] & DiscussionQuest. – together.

8. Conversational Acts

9. What is the Connection between Speech Acts and Conversational Acts  Example: “We often urge people to do things in order to persuade then to do these things.” Urge is the Speech Act. If you urge someone you have, thereby, in fact urged them. Persuade is the effect you hope your urging will have. It is the Conversational Act.  Distinguishing between speech and conversational acts -- Ex V [6e] together  What are some examples of related speech acts and conversational acts? [sg]

10. Conversational Rules I 1. Rule of Quantity: a. Make your contribution as informative as is required for the exchange at hand. b. Do not make your contribution more informative than required. 2. Rule of Quality: a. Do not say what you believe to be false b. Do not say that for which you have inadequate evidence.

11. Conversational Rules II 1. Rule of Relevance: Clear-cut violations usually involve changing the subject 2. Rule of Manner: a. Avoid obscurity of expression b. Avoid ambiguity c. Be brief d. Be orderly

12. Conversational Implication  Conversational Implication is when we convey information without actually saying it.  Based on cultural and linguistic experience, we are able to respond to the implications of a statement rather than its literal meaning.  Ex VI [6e] – What are the conversational implications of these statements? Can you create several exchanges where the question as been taken literally rather that for what it implies?

13. Violations of the Conversational Rules  Occur in rhetorical usage to create an effect.  Among those uses are: Overstatement: He hit the ball a mile Understatement: A plane crash could ruin your day. Metaphor: George Washington is the father of our country. Simile: Jon is like horse  Violating conversational rules: Ex VII & VIII [6e] together  Deception: Bronstein case.

14. Summary of Ch. 1 There are three levels of language, each with their own governing rules. 1. Linguistic Acts: Semantic & Syntactic rules [conventions] 2. Speech Acts: Rules about special agents, circumstances, facts and feelings [diverse uses] 3. Conversational Acts: The Cooperative Principle; Rules of Quantity, Quality, Relevance & Manner [what is implied]