1. Word Break Assignment Answers (for LUMUN Sudan) ː Deletion V   before + V /k ʷɔ kk ɔ t ̪ɛ - ʊ ŋ/  [k ʷɔ kk ɔ ð ʊ ŋ]‘He made you SG.’ Voicing and Weakening /t/  [ ɾ ] in-between vowels Or /t/  [ ɾ ] / V ___ + V /k ʷɪ mmat- ʊ ŋ/  [k ʷɪ mma ɾʊ ŋ]‘He saw you SG’ Complete assimilation /t/  [n] before + n  [k] before + k /k ʷɪ mmat-n ɔ n/  [k ʷɪ mmann ɔ n]‘He saw you PL’ /k ʷɪ mmat-k ɪ n/  [k ʷɪ mmakk ɪ n]‘He saw them’

2. Word Break Review True or False? If there are sound changes when two morphemes come together, the morphemes must be connected and in the same word.

3. Word Break Review True or False? If there are sound changes when two morphemes come together, the morphemes must be connected and in the same word. False ǃ Original Sound In roots/p ɪ c ɔ k/  [p ɪ j ɔ k] ‘tree type’ Across morpheme / ɪ -carak/  [ ɪ jarak] ‘in- stomach’ boundary Across word boundary/ana/ /ca ɽɪ / /c ɛ n/  [anaja ɽɪ j ɛ n] ‘and that day’ Sound can change across word boundaries. SOUND CHANGE IS NOT A GOOD ENOUGH REASON FOR CONNECTING MORPHEMES. Morphemes with sound changes could be separate words. There must be other evidence besides sound changes that morphemes are connected.

4. How does phonology help literacy development? 2.Sometimes sounds change when words or parts of words are joined in various ways. Phonology helps us find the best spelling rules for these difficult situations.

5. Assimilation (ENGLISH) /n/  /m/ before + p Negative  /l/ before + l  /r/ before + r Original SoundWritten (Underlying) (Surface)(Orthographic) (Phonemic) (Phonetic) in-tolerant  intolerantintolerant in-possible  impossibleimpossible in-logical  illogicalillogical in-reverent  irreverentirreverent We write the sounds produced by this rule.

6. Devoicing (ENGLISH) /z/  voiceless after a voiceless plosive + Plural Voiceless Voiced Original Sound WrittenOriginal Sound Written cap-z  caps capscab-z  cabzcabs bit-z  bits bitsbid-z  bidzbids buck-z  bucks bucksbug-z  bugzbugs We don’t write all the sounds produced by this rule. Instead we write the plural morpheme -s the same in all nouns. (Writing –z in all plural nouns would also have been acceptable to speakers.)

7. Sometimes it’s best to write the sounds produced by the rule. Original SoundWritten in-tolerant  intolerantintolerant in-possible  impossibleimpossible Sometimes it’s best not to write the sounds produced by the rule. Original SoundWritten cab-z  cabzcabs cap-z  caps caps How do we know when to write the different sounds produced by the rule and when not to?

8. Word Rules (Lexical processes) produce sounds speakers are aware of; the sound differences should be written /n/  /m/ before + p  /l/ before + l  /r/ before + r Original SoundWritten (Underlying) (Surface)(Orthographic) in-tolerant  intolerantintolerant in-possible  impossibleimpossible in-logical  illogicalillogical in-reverent  irreverentirreverent

9. Phrase Rules (Postlexical processes) produce sounds speakers are not aware of; the sound differences should not be written. /z/  voiceless after a voiceless plosive + Voiceless Voiced Original Sound WrittenOriginal Sound Written cap-z  caps capscab-z  cabzcabs bit-z  bits bitsbid-z  bidzbids buck-z  bucks bucksbug-z  bugzbugs How do we know if the process is a word rule or phrase rule?

10. Word Rules (Lexical processes) produce sounds speakers are aware of; the sound differences should be written a) If there are genuine exceptions to a process, it must be a word rule. b) If a process lacks a phonetic reason, it must be a word rule. c) If the process is not found in roots but only across morpheme boundaries, it must be a word rule. d) If speakers are aware of the sounds produced by a process, the process must be a word rule.

11. Phrase Rules (Postlexical processes) produce sounds speakers are not aware of; the sound differences should not be written. a) If a sound produced by a process is an allophone, the process must be a phrase rule. b) If a process occurs across a word boundary, it must be a phrase rule. c) If a sound produced by a process is gradient (partially voiced, partially aspirated, etc.), the process must be a phrase rule. d) If speakers are not aware of the sounds produced by a process, the process must be a word rule. These rules are only a starting point for deciding spelling in the orthography. After discussion and testing, speakers should have the final say about spelling.

12. Word Rules (Lexical processes) produce sounds speakers are aware of; the sound differences should be written a)If there are genuine exceptions to a process, it must be a word rule. /n/  /m/ before + p  /l/ before + l  /r/ before + r Original SoundsWritten in-possible  impossibleimpossible but in-famous  infamous *i ɱ famous infamous in-complete  incomplete *iŋcompleteincomplete un-professional  unprofessional *umprofessional unprofessional

13. Word Rules (Lexical processes) produce sounds speakers are aware of; the sound differences should be written b) If a process lacks a phonetic reason, it must be a word rule. The phonetic environment does not decide which of the following three plural suffixes attaches to the words. (Nor does the meaning of the noun decide.) The suffix is random and must be memorized with the noun to which it attaches. GAAHGM Sudan OriginalSoundWritten /d ̪ɛ ̀ ɛ ̀l-g/  /d ̪ɛ ̀ ɛ ̀lg/ deelg ‘shelf-PL’ /d ̪ɛ ̀ ɛ ̀l-g/  /d ̪ɛ ̀ ɛ ̀l ɛ ̀ ɛ ̀g/ deeleeg‘town-PL’ /t ɛɛ ́l-g/  /t ɛɛ ́lààg/theelaag‘anchor-PL’

14. Word Rules (Lexical processes) produce sounds speakers are aware of; the sound differences should be written c) If the process is not found in roots but only across morpheme boundaries, it must be a word rule. LARUSudan /ŋ ʷ / - /ŋ/ŋ-áll ʊ ̀‘you went up’ŋ ʷ -àll ʊ ̀ ‘he went up’ /ŋ ʷ / is a phoneme but only occurs in prefixes Deletion and Labialization /ŋ ʊ /  /ŋ ʷ / before + V OriginalSoundsWritten /ŋ ʊ - ɟʊ r/  /ŋ ʊ - ɟʊ r/ngujur‘PL- rock’ /ŋ ʊ - ɪ ra/  /ŋ ʷ - ɪ ra/ngwira‘PL- lion’ /ŋ ʊ -algad ̪ /  /ŋ ʷ -algad ̪ /ngwalgad‘PL-door’

15. Word Rules (Lexical processes) produce sounds speakers are aware of; the sound differences should be written d) If speakers are aware of the sounds produced by a process, the process must be a word rule. [+ATR] rightward spreading (LARU Sudan) V  [+ATR] after V[+ATR] + OriginalSounds Written /d ̪ɔ ́g ɔ ́r-ál ʊ ̀/  /d ̪ɔ ́g ɔ ́rál ʊ ̀/ dogoralu ‘on tree t.’ /d ̪ʊ ́rt ̪ʊ ́n-ál ʊ ̀/  /d ̪ʊ ́rt ̪ʊ ́nál ʊ ̀/ durtunalu ‘on tablet’ /gìd ̪ ìn-ál ʊ ̀/  /gìd ̪ ìnə́lù/ gi ̈ di ̈ na ̈ lu ̈ ‘on chicken house’ /gùgùn-ál ʊ ̀/  /gùgùnə́lù/ gu ̈ gu ̈ na ̈ lu ̈ ‘on hare house’

16. Phrase Rules (Postlexical processes) produce sounds speakers are not aware of; the sound differences should not be written. a)If a sound produced by a process is an allophone, the process must be a phrase rule. Weakening (ENGLISH) /t/  [ ɾ ] when it occurs between two vowels, the first of which is stressed. ([ ɾ ] is not a phoneme in English.) OriginalSounds Written meet-ing  [mii ɾ iŋ]meeting mat-ing  [me ɾ iŋ]mating boat-ing  [bo ɾ iŋ]boating

17. Phrase Rules (Postlexical processes) produce sounds speakers are not aware of; the sound differences should not be written. b) If a process occurs across a word boundary, it must be a phrase rule. Vowel Deletion (Elision) (EJAGHAM) (  = nothin ɡ ) V   before + V Original SoundWritten /ka/ /eti/  [keti] ka eti‘in tree’ /ka/ /oso/  [keso] ka oso‘in sky’ /ka/ /n ̩ ju/  [kan ̩ ju] ka nju‘in house’

18. Phrase Rules (Postlexical processes) produce sounds speakers are not aware of; the sound differences should not be written. c) If a sound produced by a process is gradient (partially voiced, partially aspirated, etc.), the process must be a phrase rule. [+ATR] rightward spreading (MUNDARI Sudan) V  [+ATR] after V[+ATR] + Has [-ATR] / ɪ /, / ʊ /, / ɛ /, / ɔ /, /a/ and [+ATR] /i/, /u/, /ə/ but not */e/, */o/ OriginalSounds like Written /k ʊ j ʊ -s ɔ /  [k ʊ j ʊ s ɔ ] kuyuso‘bone-SG’ /s ɛɾ an-s ɔ /  [s ɛɾ ans ɔ ] seranso‘star- SG’ / ɗ i ɾ i-s ɔ /  [ ɗ i ɾ is ɔ /o] (between [ ɔ, o]) ‘d i ̈ ri ̈ so‘virgin-SG’ /t ̪ i ɾ ən-s ɔ /  [t ̪ i ɾ əns ɔ /o] (between [ ɔ, o]) t i ̈ ra ̈ so‘produce-SG’

19. Exercise 1 ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the example words. Complete Assimilation (+ = morpheme break) (CAIRO ARABIC) The final /l/ assimilates completely to the followin ɡ consonant when that consonant is alveolar /l/  /d/ before + d /il-dars/  /iddars/ ‘the lesson’  /n/ before + n/il-nimra/  /innimra/ ‘the grade’  /s/ before + s /il-satr/  /issatr/ ‘the line’ /il-kursi/  /ilkursi/ ‘the book’

20. Exercise 1 ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the example words. Complete Assimilation (+ = morpheme break) (CAIRO ARABIC) The final /l/ assimilates completely to the followin ɡ consonant when that consonant is alveolar /l/  /d/ before + d /il-dars/  /iddars/ ‘the lesson’  /n/ before + n/il-nimra/  /innimra/ ‘the grade’  /s/ before + s /il-satr/  /issatr/ ‘the line’ /il-kursi/  /ilkursi/ ‘the book’ There are doubled /dd/, /nn/, /ss/ in the middle of roots such as /gaddam/ ‘go before’, but no consonant sequences /ld/, /ln/, /ls/ in roots. There are no word rule indicators a) If there are genuine exceptions to a process, it must be a word rule. We don’t know about any exceptions. (Not an indicator) b) If a process lacks a phonetic reason, it must be a word rule. The rule does not lack a phonetic reason; the sound changing according to the position in the mouth is a phonetic reason. (Not an indicator). c) If the process is not found in roots but only across morpheme boundaries, it must be a word rule. Since there are doubled consonants /dd/, /nn/, /ss/ in roots, the same process could also occur in roots such as /ld/  /dd/. If so, the process is not just across morpheme boundaries. (Not an indicator).

21. Exercise 1 ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the example words. Complete Assimilation (+ = morpheme break) (CAIRO ARABIC) The final /l/ assimilates completely to the followin ɡ consonant when that consonant is alveolar /l/  /d/ before + d /il-dars/  /iddars/ ‘the lesson’  /n/ before + n/il-nimra/  /innimra/ ‘the grade’  /s/ before + s /il-satr/  /issatr/ ‘the line’ /il-kursi/  /ilkursi/ ‘the book’ There are no phrase rule indicators a) If a sound produced by a process is an allophone, the process must be a phrase rule. No sounds produced by the process in our data are allophones. (Not an indicator) b) If a process occurs across a word boundary, it must be a phrase rule. We don’t find the process across word boundaries in the data (Not an indicator) c) If a sound produced by a process is gradient (partially voiced, partially aspirated, etc.), the process must be a phrase rule. We don’t know about any gradient sounds in the data. (Not an indicator)

22. Exercise 1 ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the example words. Complete Assimilation (+ = morpheme break) (CAIRO ARABIC) The final /l/ assimilates completely to the followin ɡ consonant when that consonant is alveolar If there are no word rule indicators, the process must be a phrase rule, even if there are also no phrase rule indicators. Since the process is a phrase rule, we should not write the sound differences produced by the rule. The same alveolar symbol should be used for all of the definite nouns. Original Sound Written /l/  /d/ before + d /il-dars/  /iddars/ ildars‘the lesson’  /n/ before + n/il-nimra/  /innimra/ ilnimra‘the grade’  /s/ before + s /il-satr/  /issatr/ ilsatr‘the line’ /il-kursi/  /ilkursi/ ilkursi‘the book’

23. Exercise 2 ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the example words. Assimilation to place of articulation (MUNDARI Sudan) / ɟ /  /g/ after ŋ + / ɟɔ ŋ- ɟ a/  / ɟɔ ŋga/ ‘Don’t take ǃ ’  /d ̪ / after n + /k ɔ n- ɟ a/  /k ɔ nd ̪ a/ ‘Don’t do ǃ ’ /g ɔɲ - ɟ a/  /g ɔɲɟ a/ ‘Don’t give ǃ ’ There are no consonant clusters *CC or pre-nasalized plosives */ ɟ /,/g/,/ⁿd ̪ / in roots, although / ɟ / - / ɲɟ / /k ɔɟ a/‘Don’t bite ǃ ’ /g ɔɲɟ a/‘Don’t give ǃ ’

24. Exercise 2 ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the example words. Assimilation to place of articulation (MUNDARI Sudan) / ɟ /  /g/ after ŋ + / ɟɔ ŋ- ɟ a/  / ɟɔ ŋga/ ‘Don’t take ǃ ’  /d ̪ / after n + /k ɔ n- ɟ a/  /k ɔ nd ̪ a/ ‘Don’t do ǃ ’ /g ɔɲ - ɟ a/  /g ɔɲɟ a/ ‘Don’t give ǃ ’ There are no consonant clusters *CC or pre-nasalized plosives */ ɟ /,/g/,/ⁿd ̪ / in roots, although / ɟ / - / ɲɟ / /k ɔɟ a/‘Don’t bite ǃ ’ /g ɔɲɟ a/‘Don’t give ǃ ’ There is one word rule indicator a) If there are genuine exceptions to a process, it must be a word rule. We don’t know about any exceptions. (Not an indicator) b) If a process lacks a phonetic reason, it must be a word rule. The rule does not lack a phonetic reason; the sound changing according to the position in the mouth is a phonetic reason. (Not an indicator). c) If the process is not found in roots but only across morpheme boundaries, it must be a word rule. The process cannot occur in roots because there are no consonant sequences in roots. Since the process only occurs at morpheme boundaries, we must refer to a morpheme boundary, and it must be a word rule (Indicator).

25. Exercise 2 ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the example words. Assimilation to place of articulation (MUNDARI Sudan) / ɟ /  /g/ after ŋ + / ɟɔ ŋ- ɟ a/  / ɟɔ ŋga/ ‘Don’t take ǃ ’  /d ̪ / after n + /k ɔ n- ɟ a/  /k ɔ nd ̪ a/ ‘Don’t do ǃ ’ /g ɔɲ - ɟ a/  /g ɔɲɟ a/ ‘Don’t give ǃ ’ There are no consonant clusters *CC or pre-nasalized plosives */ ɟ /,/g/,/ⁿd ̪ / in roots, although / ɟ / - / ɲɟ / /k ɔɟ a/‘Don’t bite ǃ ’ /g ɔɲɟ a/‘Don’t give ǃ ’ There are no phrase rule indicators a) If a sound produced by a process is an allophone, the process must be a phrase rule. No sounds produced by the process are allophones; / ɲɟ / or / ɟ / is contrastive with / ɟ / and not an allophone. (Not an indicator) b) If a process occurs across a word boundary, it must be a phrase rule. We don’t find the process across word boundaries in the data. (Not an indicator) c) If a sound produced by a process is gradient, the process must be a phrase rule. We don’t know about any gradient sounds in the data. (Not an indicator)

26. Exercise 2 ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the example words. Assimilation to place of articulation (MUNDARI Sudan) Since the process is a word rule, we write the sound differences produced by the rule. We write g, d, j. Original Sound Written / ɟ /  /g/ after ŋ + / ɟɔ ŋ- ɟ a/  / ɟɔ ŋga/joŋga‘Don’t take ǃ ’  /d ̪ / after n + /k ɔ n- ɟ a/  /k ɔ nd ̪ a/konda‘Don’t do ǃ ’ /g ɔɲ - ɟ a/  /g ɔɲɟ a/gonyja‘Don’t give ǃ ’

27. Class Assignmentː (no class assigment other than to understand the examples given in this lesson) Reading Assignment Tone Analysis for Field Linguists (Chapter 5) pg. 103 – 107; 113 - 123