1. Meaning and Dimensions of Culture
Chapter 4

2. Chapter Outline The nature of culture Values and folkways
Comparing cultural values
Sub-cultures and cultural change
How culture affects management – see page 95
How cultures view each other

3. Chapter Outline (2) Cultural dimensions – how people look at life
Hofstede's dimensions
Trompenaars’ dimensions

4. The Nature of Culture
Culture is the acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and generate social behavior
Cultural knowledge forms values, creates attitudes, and influences behavior
Not everyone in a culture has exactly the same values.

5. Values and Folkways Culture sets norms (expectations) for behavior
Values are cultural beliefs about right and wrong. Values have moral significance and are often included in law.
Folkways are customary ways of behaving, with little or no moral significance.
Examples: wedding customs, what to wear to a funeral

6. Table 4-1: Cultural Values
Arab Countries
United States
Japan
Family security
Family harmony
Parental guidance
Age
Authority
Compromise
Devotion
Patience
Indirectness
Hospitality
Freedom
Independence
Self-reliance
Equality
Individualism
Competition
Efficiency
Time
Directness
Openness
Belonging
Group harmony
Collectiveness
Age/seniority
Group consensus
Cooperation
Quality
Patience
Indirectness
Go-between

7. Sub-cultures and Cultural Change
Groups within a culture may be part of a sub-culture that varies in some ways from the national culture.
Cultures can change gradually over time.
People who have worked outside their own country or have friends from other cultures may pick up some attitudes or behaviors from the other culture.

8. How Cultures View Each Other
Stereotyping: assumes that all people within one culture or group behave, believe, feel, and act the same.
Ethnocentrism: occurs when people from one culture believe that theirs are the only correct norms, values, and beliefs.
Self-reference criterion: the assumption that people in another culture will behave like people in your culture

9. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Power Distance
Power distance: The extent to which less powerful members of institutions and organizations accept that power is distributed unequally
High power distance countries: people may blindly obey the orders of their superiors and are less likely to question authority. Companies tend to use centralized decision-making and tall organization structures (many levels of management)
Low power distance countries: flatter and decentralized organization structures, smaller ratio of supervisors. Employees are more likely to question their bosses. Participative management may be used.

10. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Individualism and Collectivism
Individualism: Tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate family only
Countries high in individualism: High individual initiative. Promotions are based on achievement. Salaries are based on market value.
Collectivism: Tendency of people to belong to groups or collectives and to look after each other in exchange for loyalty
Countries high in collectivism: Low individual initiative. Salaries and promotions may be based on seniority

12. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Uncertainty Avoidance
Uncertainty avoidance: Extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguous situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid such situations
High uncertainty avoidance countries: people have high need for security, strong belief in experts and their knowledge, more written rules and procedures, less risk taking by managers
Low uncertainty avoidance countries: people are more willing to accept risks associated with the unknown, fewer written rules and procedures, more risk taking by managers, higher employee turnover, more ambitious employees

14. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Masculinity and Femininity
Masculinity: the dominant social values are success, money and things
Countries high in masculinity: People place great importance on earnings, recognition, advancement, challenge, and wealth. High job stress.
Femininity: the dominant social values are caring for others and the quality of life
Countries high in femininity: great importance on cooperation, friendly atmosphere, employment security, and the natural environment. Low job stress.

16. Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions
Universalism vs. particularism
Universalism – the belief that ideas and practices can be applied everywhere in the world without modification. People tend to focus on formal rules and expect business partners to do the same.
Particularism – the belief that circumstances dictate how ideas and practices should be applied and some things cannot be done the same way everywhere. People tend to focus on relationships, working things out to suit those involved.

17. Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions (2)
Neutral vs. Emotional Cultures
Neutral culture – a culture in which emotions are held in check. People try not to show their feelings
Emotional culture – a culture in which emotions are expressed openly and naturally. People smile, may talk loudly, greet each other with enthusiasm, show happiness or unhappiness.

18. Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions (3)
Achievement vs. Ascription n
Achievement culture - culture in which people are accorded status based on how well they perform their work and what they have accomplished
Job, work performance, education, etc.
Ascription culture - culture in which status is attributed based on who or what a person is
For example, status may be accorded on the basis of age, gender, family, tribe, ethnic group, etc.

20. Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions (4)
Use of time
Sequential use of time - people do one thing at a time, keep appointments strictly, follow plans to the letter
Synchronous use of time - people do more than one thing at a time, appointments are approximate

21. Trompenaars' Research on People and the External Environment
Inner-directed: People believe in controlling environmental outcomes and think that they can control what happens to them
Outer-directed: People believe in allowing things to take their natural course and living in harmony with nature. People are less likely to believe that they can control what happens to them.