1. Foundations (cont.) Complexity Testing explanations in psychology Cognitive Neuroscience

2. Complexity is key The amazing thing about thought is that everything is too complicated for us to do –Yet, we manage to get around the world. What do we mean by complexity? –There are always many possibilities –Only a few of them are relevant –How do we decide which ones are correct?

3. Example How can you get to Dallas from here? Possibilities –Drive –Take a bus –Take a plane –Walk?

4. There are many other options too Unlikely routes –Drive via Peru Unlikely modes of transportation –Scooter Impossible actions –Magical transportation devices Unlikely time scales –3 minutes; 275 years If we considered all of these possibilities, how would we ever decide what to do?

5. Complexity Somehow we manage to solve these problems What must happen? –We must limit the options we consider –We must think quickly enough to consider a reasonable number of options How does this happen?

6. Constraints A central theme this semester is constraints The cognitive system has many ways of focusing on what is relevant –Constraints promote information likely to be relevant –Some possibilities may be missed Constraints determine what is easy or hard to do. –Theories suggest possible sets of constraints –Experiments test whether people use those constraints.

7. Ways of testing theories Return to levels of explanation Theories may describe constraints at different levels of explanation –Computational level –Algorithmic level –Implementational level Different kinds of data will be relevant to each type of explanation.

9. Computational level explanations Computational level explanations specify input/output relationships Studies must explore these relationships Given a particular situation or stimulus –What is the output? –Does that output differ from what is optimal That is, the best that could happen? –Example: Psychophysics –What possibilities are considered? Are some possibilities excluded? –Example: Parsing language

10. Methods Ratings and judgments –Similarity, typicality, grammaticality Problem-solving studies Classification and Learning Memory tests –Recognition –Recall

11. Algorithmic level explanations Specify representations and processes –Often suggests what will be easy and hard to do. Tests must distinguish between types of representations and processes Response time –A measure of what is easy and hard Example: Mental rotation Think-aloud protocols –Speaking aloud the inner voice Example: Self-explanation effects

12. Implementational level explanations Specifies how thought is implemented –Human thought occurs in the brain We cannot open up people’s brains in general Cognitive neuroscience –Using natural experiments Disorders and lesions (from events like strokes and war) –Non-invasive brain imaging PET, fMRI, and ERP –Let’s focus on these a bit more.

13. This is your brain It is not this color of course... Four lobes Frontal Parietal Temporal Occipital

14. Neurons and activity The active cells in the brain are neurons They send signals (called action potentials) –These potentials influence neighboring cells –Signals are electrical The combined activity of neurons carries activation.

15. What, When, and where? There are three key aspects to studying people’s brains. What functions are performed? Where are they performed? When does the activity occur?

16. Lesion Studies Studying brain damage can tell us something about what areas of the brain affect particular functions –If an area has a lesion, and the person shows a specific deficit, then that area probably has something to do with that function. Pretty vague conclusion… Example: Memory disorders –Lesions of the hippocampus and memory

17. Brain imaging We want to know where the activity is happening –Spatial resolution We want to know when it occurs –Temporal resolution Different techniques have different strengths.

18. ERP Event Related Potentials Electrodes are placed at the scalp –Measure small changes in voltage after presentation of some stimulus Poor spatial resolution –Current must pass through scalp Excellent temporal resolution

19. fMRI Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Measures cerebral blood flow –Probably related to neural activity Excellent spatial resolution Poor temporal resolution

20. PET Positron Emission Tomography Also a measure of brain activity –Traces path of radioactive substance put in blood –Often measures glucose uptake –More invasive than fMRI Not used as often as fMRI any more. Good spatial resolution Poor temporal resolution

21. Summary Much remains to be learned about the brain We will touch on evidence from cognitive neuroscience this semester. There may be limits on what we can learn from the brain. –It is not necessary that the way my brain does something is the same as the way your brain does the same thing.