1. ©2002 Prentice Hall Theories of Personality

2. ©2002 Prentice Hall Theories of Personality The Elements of Personality The Biological Contribution The Learning Contribution The Cultural Contribution The Psychodynamic Contribution The Humanist Contribution

3. ©2002 Prentice Hall The Elements of Personality

4. ©2002 Prentice Hall Five Central Factors in Personality Extroversion versus Introversion Neuroticism Agreeableness Conscientiousness Openness to Experience

5. ©2002 Prentice Hall The Biological Contribution Heredity and Temperament Heredity and Traits Evaluating Genetic Theories

6. ©2002 Prentice Hall Heredity and Temperament Temperaments: Physiological dispositions to respond to the environment in certain ways; they are present in infancy and are assumed to be innate. Genes: The functional units of heredity; they are composed of DNA and specify the structure of proteins.

7. ©2002 Prentice Hall Heredity and Traits Heritability: A statistical estimate of the proportion of the total variance in some trait that is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a group. Behavioral genetics: An interdisciplinary field of study concerned with the genetic basis of behavior and personality.

8. ©2002 Prentice Hall Twins Identical (Monozygotic) Twins: Twins that develop when a fertilized egg divides into two parts that develop into separate embryos Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins: Twins that develop when two separate eggs are fertilized by different sperm; they are no more alike genetically than any other pair of siblings.

9. ©2002 Prentice Hall Twin Studies Studying identical twins separated near birth is one behavior genetic method Gerald and Mark (right) met at age 31 after being separated at birth. Both – Are volunteer firefighters – Like to hunt, eat Chinese food, and watch John Wayne movies – Drink the same brand of beer, with their hands held the same way (pinky curled)

10. ©2002 Prentice Hall Evaluating Genetic Theories Reasons for Caution – Not all traits are equally heritable or unaffected by shared environment. – Some studies may underestimate the impact of the environment. – Even traits that are highly heritable are not rigidly fixed. Genetic predisposition does not imply inevitability

11. ©2002 Prentice Hall The Learning Contribution The Behavioral School The Social-Cognitive Learning School Evaluating Learning Theories

12. ©2002 Prentice Hall The Behavioral School Behaviorism: An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior. Operant Conditioning: The process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences. Reinforcer: A stimulus or event that strengthens or increases the probability of the response it follows.

13. ©2002 Prentice Hall The Social-Cognitive Learning School A theory that emphasizes how behavior is learned and maintained through the interaction between individuals and their environment, an interaction strongly influenced by such cognitive processes as observations, expectations, perceptions, and motivating beliefs.

14. ©2002 Prentice Hall Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Expectations lead to behavior that makes prediction come true Expecting to fail leads to behavior that guarantees failure

15. ©2002 Prentice Hall The Cultural Contribution Culture and Personality Evaluating Cultural Theories

16. ©2002 Prentice Hall Culture and Personality Culture: A program of shared rules that govern the behavior of members of a community or society, and a set of values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by most members of that community

17. ©2002 Prentice Hall Individualism or Community? Individualist Culture: The self is regarded as autonomous, and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty and relations with others. Collectivist Culture: The self is regarded as embedded in relationships, and harmony with one’s group is prized above individual goals and wishes.

18. ©2002 Prentice Hall Cultures and Time Monochronic Culture: Cultures in which time is organized sequentially; schedules and deadlines are valued over people. Polychronic Culture: Cultures in which time is organized horizontally; people tend to do several things at once and value relationships over schedules.

19. ©2002 Prentice Hall The Psychodynamic Contribution Freud and Psychoanalysis Two Other Psychodynamic Approaches Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories

20. ©2002 Prentice Hall Psychodynamic Theories Emphasis on unconscious intrapsychic dynamics Belief in the importance of early childhood Belief that development occurs in fixed stages Focus on fantasies and symbolic meanings of events Reliance on subjective rather than objective methods

21. ©2002 Prentice Hall The Structure of Personality Id: Operates according to the pleasure principle – Primitive and unconscious part of personality Ego: Operates according to the reality principle – Mediates between id and superego Superego: Moral ideals and conscience

22. ©2002 Prentice Hall Defense Mechanisms Repression: Threatening idea is blocked from consciousness Projection: Unacceptable feelings are attributed to someone else Displacement: Directing emotions toward objects or people that aren’t the real target Reaction Formation: A feeling that produces anxiety is transformed into its opposite. Regression: A person reverts to a previous phase of psychological development. Denial: A person refuses to admit that something is unpleasant.

23. ©2002 Prentice Hall Freud’s Psychosexual Stages Oral Anal Phallic Latency period Genital

24. ©2002 Prentice Hall Two Other Psychodynamic Approaches Jungian Theory: A psychodynamic theory that includes the concepts of the collective unconscious (the universal memories of the species) and archetypes (universal symbolic images in myths, art, and dreams). Object Relations Theory: A psychodynamic approach that emphasizes the importance of the infant’s first two years of life and the baby’s formative relationships, especially with the mother.

25. ©2002 Prentice Hall Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories Psychodynamic theories violate the principle of falsifiability Psychodynamic theories are criticized for drawing universal principles from the experiences of a few atypical patients. Psychodynamic theories are criticized for basing theories upon the retrospective accounts and fallible memories of patients.

26. ©2002 Prentice Hall The Humanist Contribution The Inner Experience Evaluating Humanist Theories

27. ©2002 Prentice Hall Humanist Psychology A psychological approach that emphasizes personal growth and the achievement of human potential rather than the scientific understanding and assessment of behavior.