1. The Spanish Empire in the New World Age of the Viceroys and the Caste System

2. Havana harbor The age of the Viceroys – Spain’s control over Spanish America lasted over 300 years, beginning in 1492. The mainland territories of the empire in North and South America gained independence during the first two decades of the 19 th century, while in the Caribbean, Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish control until 1898.

3. The Spanish possessions in the Americas were extensive, from Mexico (including the current southwest of the U.S.), through Central America, to South America. Its territories were much greater than the other major colonial powers in the area (England or Portugal). Communication with Spain could take up to several months. Nevertheless, Spanish control over its colonies was guaranteed by three important institutions: the Viceroy, the armed forces, and the Catholic Church.

4. The Viceroy was the king’s representative in the New World (the Spanish word is virrey, which means “in place of the king”). The Viceroy governed a Viceroyalty. At the beginning of the colonial period there were two viceroys, in Mexico and Perú. By the 18 th century, two more viceroys were appointed for South America (in the regions of modern-day Colombia and Argentina).

6. Viceregal Government King Viceroy ExecutiveJudicialMilitaryTreasuryChurch Regional and Local Levels Central Authority

7. Government Organization, continued… Regional Offices held by Peninsulares Regional Offices held by Peninsulares –Ex. Court of Appeals, Diocese Local Offices held by Creoles Local Offices held by Creoles –Ex. Mayor, Parrish Priests

8. Assisting the viceroys were the armed forces of Spain, the army and the navy. While the Spanish armadas began to lose their power in 17 th and 18 th centuries (challenged by the powerful English Navy, and by pirates), the soldiers of the viceroy were able to maintain control of Spanish territories until the outbreak of the wars of independence after 1800.

9. Cathedral (Lima, left); above, a trial of the Inquisition A third main institution of the Spanish colonial period was the Catholic Church. Its main goal was to insure the conversion of the indigenous peoples to Christianity and the persecution of “heretics” through the Inquisition. The Church, the armed forces, and the Viceroy usually worked together closely to insure the smooth operation of the empire.

10. Reenactment of Spanish Colonists (New Mexico) The system of the encomienda was initially established by the Spanish crown and enforced by the Viceroys. Under this system, favored Spanish settlers were given large tracts of land and people to work the fields, mines, and waters nearby. Although the government attempted to abolish the encomienda system by the 18 th century, because of the abuse of the natives, some landowners continued to control the lives of families living on their land.

11. The Caste System The Spanish colonial period was also marked by a rigid social stratification. The most privileged class were the Spaniards, who held the important government and church posts. The children of the Spanish born in the New World were called creoles. While still a privileged class, the creoles increasingly complained about “newcomers” from Spain and more and more wanted to participate in the governing of the Spanish state in the Americas. Spanish colonists of New Mexico (reenactment)

12. Three main divisions 1. Full Europeans peninsulare or creole 2. Half European/ Half Native mestizo 3. Half European/ Half African mulatto Native, African, Half African/Half Native

13. Peninsulares 10,000 Creoles 650,000 Mestizos 1,500,000 Mulattoes, Natives, Africans 2,500,000 Mexico, Early 1800s

14. Marriage Spain: “Better marriage than burning” –low percentage of illegitimates New Spain: “Better to live with someone than be alone”—high percentage of illegitimates

15. The Castes as a Racial System  Pigmentocracy  Who determined the caste?

16. People who fit into mixed groups, were well defined by a “pigmentocracy” or a stratification based on the color of the skin Artistic rendition of the caste system

17. Castes as a Cultural System Rights Rights The Predominance of mestizos and mestizo culture The Predominance of mestizos and mestizo culture

18. Family of King Charles IV, 1800 ( Goya) The decadence of Spain in the 18 th and 19 th centuries – By 1800 the Spanish empire in the Americas was ripe for change. Spain had increasingly come under the influence of France; in 1808 Napoleon invaded Spain and installed his brother (José I) as king (causing dissatisfaction in the Spanish colonies and war in Spain). Moreover, both the American Revolution (1776) and the French Revolution (1789) gave new hope especially to the creoles, who wanted to govern their lands without the interference of Spain.