1. Oceania Voices of Land and Sea
Chapter 4 introduces us to some music traditions found in Oceania.
Australia,
Papua New Guinea,
Hawaii, Kiribati
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2. UPDATE MAP MAP Oceania Map
The outlined areas of the map indicate different cultural regions in Oceania. This chapter offers one music site from each of the four regions of this area: Australia, Melanesia, Polynesia, and Micronesia.
UPDATE MAP
MAP
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3. Background Preparation
Australia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia
1,200 different languages
English & French common
Animism/Totemism, Christianity
Primarily vocal music
Aside from Australia and the island of New Guinea, most of Oceania consists of very small islands with few natural resources and limited population. Nonetheless, with nearly 25,000 islands throughout the region, there is a great diversity of music that is little known to the outside world. The primary culture areas outside of Australia are Melanesia, meaning “Dark Islands,” a reference to the dark skin pigmentation of the islands’ indigenous populations; Micronesia, meaning “small islands,” as most of these locales are atolls; and Polynesia, meaning “many islands.” More than 1,200 different languages are found throughout Oceania, indicative of the great cultural diversity in the region.
Due to colonialism, English and French are widely found and are often considered “national” languages, though few people may actually speak them in some remote areas.
Animistic and totemistic spiritual systems are common in many areas, as they are in indigenous traditions around the world. In brief, animism deals with the “spirit” or “energy” of animate and inanimate beings. This includes not only humans and animals, but natural occurrences, such as trees and plants, or fire, wind, a mountain, waterfall, etc. Totemism typically implies some ancestral relationship of a particular group with a totem. The totem is seen as a benefactor in most cases, and an individual or community may take on characteristics associated with the totem, e.g., an owl is “wise,” or a lion is “courageous.” A person may have such animals as a totem if their individual personalities seem to reflect these characteristics.
Primarily due to limited natural resources, music in Oceania emphasizes the voice. For groups that live a semi-nomadic lifestyle, such as Australian aborigines, the voice is the most “portable” instrument to have as you take it everywhere you go! When instruments are found, they tend to be small, with a few exceptions, such as the Karamut slit drums from Papua New Guinea. Most instruments from Oceania are idiophones or aerophones that are easily portable and do not require much material to make.
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4. Site 1: Aborigine Song with didjeridu
Australia
The slide background is of Ayers Rock in central Australia. This is considered an important spiritual location among the aboriginal population whom we will be studying in our first musical site.
Site 1:
Aborigine Song with didjeridu
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5. A koala from Australia’s Outback
Arrival: Australia
The “Outback” or “Bush”
Arnhem Land, Northern Territory
Aborigines
Oldest consistent culture
Nomadic lifestyle
Dreamtime
Concept of Creation
The Outback refers to the dry interior of Australia, also known as “The Bush.” Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory is a government reserve for Aborigines to maintain their traditional lifestyle. While many aborigines live modern lifestyles, a significant number continue to follow the traditional cultural practices of their ancestors.
Archaeological evidence, such as cave drawings, suggests the “hunter/gatherer” lifestyle that some aboriginal groups still lead is the oldest consistent culture on the planet, dating to nearly 40,000 years old. The nomadic or semi-nomadic subsistence of these people, encourages vocal performance as the primary musical activity. Instruments, such as the didjeridu, tend to be small and portable as a result.
An important aspect of aboriginal culture is their spiritual belief system. This animistic–totemistic system is known as Dreamtime or “The Dreaming,” so-called as it is suggestive of a dream state in which humans are most likely to have an awareness of the creative powers of the universe. Refer to your book for more explanation of the concept of creation story, which is strongly associated with nature. “Dreamtime” is a central focus for much aboriginal music activity and associated rituals.
A koala from Australia’s Outback
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6. Site 1: Aboriginal Music
As our first music site of this course, remember that the “First Impressions” section of each music site we study is intended to be your own. I will offer my own suggestion for each site, but you may feel or think something differently. There are no “wrong” answers for a first impression, but it’s important that you try to articulate one. This will help make the music more personal to you and certainly help remind you of it in the future.
[PLAY AUDIO EXAMPLE, CD 1.1]
First Impressions: To me, the low rumbling drone of the didjeridu stands out the most. This can be described in many ways; some students have offered suggestions such as the sound of a buzzing hornet’s nest, or a large waterfall. The “bang” of the clapsticks is also distinctive and aurally represents the “big bang” concept of Dreamtime, which is so prominent in the lyrical component of performance. Furthermore, the sound of the didjeridu not only “symbolizes” the creative powers of the earth/universe as expressed in Dreamtime spirituality, but is believed to have a direct connection to the spirit world.
Aural Analysis: The didjeridu is typically made of a tree branch, usually yellowbox or eucalyptus, hollowed out by termites. It is played with a circular breathing technique, which means the performer simultaneously inhales through the nose as he exhales through the mouth in order to maintain the drone sound of the didjeridu. The basic technique requires the performer to fill the cheeks with an air reserve that is then “squeezed” out as the performer quickly inhales through the nose. You can attempt this technique by blowing bubbles through a straw and trying to keep the bubbles continuously going.
Clapsticks are commonly two slats of wood, but can be boomerang, too. The sound is meant to symbolize the “big bang” when the earth was created according to Dreamtime mythology. The sound of these instruments is also louder than that of the didjeridu and voice, so is used to signal others (spirits as well) to a performance.
The vocalist is essentially a storyteller, performing songs related to Dreamtime. Some of the text is “non-lexical” or meaningless, even in the dialect of the aborigines, but is believed to be understood by spirits, i.e., wondjina.
[PLAY AUDIO EXAMPLE, CD 1.1 AGAIN]
First Impressions
Low rumble & “bang”
Aural Analysis
Didjeridu
Circular Breathing
Clapsticks
Vocal “Storyteller”
Didjeridu and boomerang clapsticks
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7. Cultural Considerations
History songs
Wondjina (spirits)
Corroboree
Aboriginal women do not play didjeridu
The songs most often performed in association with this type of aboriginal music are referred to as history songs. They contain the social and moral codes for aboriginal culture, teaching spiritual beliefs, social relationships, economic subsistence, etc.
Wondjina are spirits believed to have created the features of the earth as well as history songs; thus, the connection with Dreamtime spirituality and a strong respect for nature are present in most songs.
Often times, such songs are performed at night-time sacred rituals known as corroboree. Body-painted dancers perform to the accompaniment of history songs and connect community to the creative powers of the universe. The dances are often done by firelight and the white paint glows; the paint is believed to assist the dancer in connecting with the spirit world.
The sound of the didjeridu is believed to provide a direct link to the creative powers of the universe and the wondjina spirits. As such, women are prohibited from playing the instrument lest they become more fertile, “creating” too many children for the community to feed. Prohibition of performance is not considered a “male dominance” issue (as Westerners tend to presume), but rather an “economic” issue for the well-being of all.
A night-time corroboree ritual
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8. Papua New Guinea Site 2: Susap
Be sure to locate this country on the map of Oceania found on slide 2.
Site 2: Susap
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9. Arrival: Papua New Guinea
Largest island of Melanesia
Fewer than 5 million inhabitants
More than 700 indigenous languages
Papua New Guinea is found on the eastern half of the island of New Guinea, the largest island in Melanesia. While the entire island has fewer than 5 million inhabitants, there are numerous indigenous languages, along with English, and Tok Pisin, a pidgin English.
The drums pictured (kundu) are commonly performed in rituals and dances. The karamut (slit drum, not pictured) is the other most common drum associated with PNG.
Enga men play the kundu goblet drum
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10. Site 2: Susap (mouth harp)
First Impressions
“Twang” timbre
Aural Analysis
Susap
Mouth is resonator
Manipulation of overtones
[LISTEN TO CD 1.2]
The “twang” sound of this instrument is a common first impression.
The susap is a lamellophone. A lamellophone is a type of idiophone with a tongue (lamella) that vibrates to produce the sound. A string attached to the susap is pulled by the performer to make the tongue vibrate. The mouth is used as a resonator to amplify the sound of the instrument. Changing the shape of the mouth changes the overtones produced, such that melody or interesting timbral changes are created.
[LISTEN TO CD 1.2 AGAIN.]
A Baruya man plays the susap
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11. Cultural Considerations
Susap acts as a “speech surrogate”
“Disguises” speech
Common to courting rituals
Possesses love-controlling powers
The susap is considered a “speech surrogate,” substituting for the voice. In this case, the intent is to disguise the voice such that eavesdroppers have difficulty understanding what is being said. It is commonly used among various indigenous groups in Papua New Guinea. A common usage is for courting rituals, so the instrument is primarily associated with children and young unmarried men. Men use the susap to put women in an amorous mood, as it is believed by some groups to have love-controlling powers. If the woman is not attracted to the man, the instrument is considered to have weak power or magic; thus the man discards it for another.
This perspective may or may not be shared by the women, though, to my knowledge, the question has never been posed to the women of communities where this instrument is used for courting rituals. If, for example, a woman is already attracted to a man, hearing the instrument played may be considered “romantic,” or at least gives the woman an excuse to display affections. If a woman is not attracted to the man, then he can blame the instrument for not being able to seduce the woman, thus maintaining his ego. She may suggest he “try again” when he has a better instrument as a way to deter him from pursuing her. Given that interaction between members of small communities occurs on a daily basis, it is important that relationships are amicable or else tension can cause problems within the community. Using the instrument as a “scapegoat” for a man failing to attract a woman’s affections is helpful for avoiding an awkward relationship between the two. These are purely my subjective interpretations, but give you an idea of how an outsider may characterize the courting role of the instrument differently than a cultural insider.
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12. Site 3: Drum-Dance Chant
Hawaii
While Hawaii is politically a part of the United States, it is geographically and culturally speaking a part of Oceania.
Site 3: Drum-Dance Chant
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13. Arrival: Hawaii Northernmost islands of Polynesia
Captain James Cook (1778)
King Kamehameha I & II
Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941)
50th U.S. state (1959)
Be sure to find Hawaii on the map of Oceania. You’ll notice that it is quite far from the rest of Polynesia. James Cook is considered the first Western explorer to visit the islands of Hawaii. He arrived in 1778 on good relations, but was killed in a skirmish with Hawaiians the following year. The influx of Europeans and Americans soon increased and Hawaii became a major port for travelers to Oceania.
In 1795, King Kamehameha I was crowned. He was successful in maintaining Hawaii’s independence from European colonialism and supportive of traditional religion and culture. In 1819, Kamehameha II succeeded his father and in less than a year dismantled the kapus, a social system based on strict taboos, instead encouraging Christianity to replace indigenous religions viewed as pagan practices. A large influx of Europeans and Americans resulted from these changes. Much of the island was subsequently claimed to support a strong agricultural economy, growing primarily sugar cane and pineapples.
Annexed by the U.S. in 1898, Hawaii became a U.S. territory in Pearl Harbor was attacked by the Japanese in 1941, bringing the United States into World War II. Hawaii became the 50th U.S. state in 1959 and is now one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world.
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14. Site 3: Drum-Dance Chant
First Impressions
“Wavy” chant
“Earthy” drums
Aural Analysis
Kilu and pahu
“Open” word endings
Vocal vibrato
[LISTEN TO CD 1.3]
The lilting voice has a “wavy” sound that I imagine as if a flower bobbing along the waves of the ocean. The drums have a deeper, “earthy” tone.
The higher pitched drum is the Kilu, which is usually made from a coconut shell and has a fish skin face. The drum is played with a strip of braided coconut fibers.
The deeper sounding drum is called a Pahu. It is a wooden carved footed drum played with the hand. The face is usually made of shark skin.
Listen again to the opening phrase of this example. The performer says the words, (Ai) kaulilua I ke anu Wai ale ale, before chanting them. Notice that each word ends with an “open” vowel sound, rather than a hard consonant. This is important as it allows the vocalist to “flow” each word to the next and utilize vibrato and portamento techniques.
[LISTEN TO CD 1.3 AGAIN]
Kilu (left) and Pahu (right) Hawaiian Drums
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15. Cultural Considerations
Mele (poetry)
Hula (dance)
Sacred Pahu drum
Mana (spiritual power)
Chant traditions are common among the indigenous music of Hawaii (and all of Oceania for that matter). There are several categories of Mele, or poetry, some sacred, some secular, which are often chanted to give the words more power or efficacy. Such poetry is vital to the maintenance of indigenous language, spiritual beliefs, history and social customs.
Hula is the generic term for dance. It, too, has several categories, some considered sacred, others secular. Polynesian dance tends to emphasize the movement of hands, arms and hips. Most dance movements have specific cultural meaning and can be used to tell a story, often related to the Hawaiian concept of creation. The image of a “hula” dancer is usually of a female performer, but men commonly do such dances as well.
Pahu drums are important ritual objects believed to hold much Mana, or sacred power. The sound of the drum is believed to “speak” to the gods and is symbolic of the authority and sacred power of a chief or priest.
A hula dance
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16. Kiribati Site 4: Group Song
Be sure to locate Kiribati on the map of Oceania.
Site 4: Group Song
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17. Arrival: Kiribati Group of islands, including:
Line Islands (east)
Phoenix Islands (central)
Gilbert Islands (west)
British protectorates during 1800s
Christian missionaries influential
Kiribati is actually a collection of three different island chains, the Line, Phoenix, and Gilbert Islands. As British protectorates during the 1800s, English is still widely spoken today. As with much of Oceania, Protestant missionaries were particularly influential on cultural practices. Such missionaries tended to be rather strict toward indigenous practices and often suppressed traditions considered “pagan,” especially those with overt sexual connotations.
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18. Site 4: Kiribati Group Song
First Impressions
“Youthful” a capella choir
Aural Analysis
Unison rhythm
Handclaps
[LISTEN TO CD 1.4]
First Impressions: The vocal timbre has a characteristic “child-like” timbre. No instruments are heard, so we describe such vocal-only groups as a capella, which is a reference to the “chapel” style as heard in Roman Catholic churches where no instruments were heard, though today they are.
Aural Analysis: Indigenous vocal traditions in Kiribati often start with a freely rhythmic section, though today this feature is commonly omitted. The use of a steady meter and appearance of vocal harmony suggests European influence, though choral singing predates the arrival of colonialists to Micronesia.
The leader’s call signals the entrance of the choir, which sings with a unison rhythm and fairly simple harmony. The handclaps provide a steady rhythmic pulse. The textbook discusses the lyrical content of this example, which deals with the events of World War II.
[LISTEN TO CD 1.4 AGAIN]
Kiribati dancers during a bino ceremony.
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19. Cultural Considerations
Music skills are valuable clan property
Maneaba – communal meeting houses
Music and dance “battles”
European colonial influence
Choral traditions throughout Oceania pre-date European colonialism.
Song was often considered a vital link to ancestral spirits and supernatural powers and were therefore valuable clan property.
Music/Dance contests between rival clans often substituted for physical warfare. Some performers entered trance states, frowned on by Christian missionaries. Performances (and rehearsals the night before) often took place in communal meeting houses known as Maneaba.
Once Christian missionaries arrived in Kiribati, the nature of these competitions soon changed. Missionaries undermined these contests by creating vocal groups not associated with clan lineages. The focus shifted from the “powerful” singing, which sometimes included spirit possession, to musicality judged by Europeans according to their own value system, which emphasized the use of harmony and “restrained” singing.
[Video]
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