1. Chapter 3
STRUCTURE IN SCHOOLS

2. THE CLASSIC WEBERIAN BUREAUCRACY
Division of labor
Impersonal orientation
Hierarchy of authority
Rules and regulations
Career orientation

3. Division of Labor and Specialization
Because tasks in most organizations are too complex to be performed by a single individual, div. of labor among positions improves efficiency
In schools, div. of labor is primarily for instructional purposes
Subspecialties are based on level (elementary and secondary) and subject (math, science, bilingual, special ed., etc.)

4. Impersonal Orientation “the dominance of a spirit of formalistic impersonality, without hatred or passion, without affection or enthusiasm”
Weber argued that the working atmosphere of a bureaucracy should provide an impersonal orientation
The employee is expected to make decisions based on facts, not feelings
Impersonality on the part of administrators and teachers assures equality of treatment and facilitates rationality

5. Hierarchy of Authority
Offices are arranged vertically
In schools-- Superintendent at the top and assistants, directors, principals, teachers, and students at successively lower level
Hierarchy attempts to guarantee the disciplined compliance to directives from superiors that is necessary for implementing the various tasks and functions of an organization

6. Rules and Regulations
Every bureaucracy has a system of rules and regulations
The system of rules:
1. covers the rights and duties inherent in each position
2. helps coordinate activities in the hierarchy
3. provides continuity of operations when there are changes in personnel
4. ensures uniformity and stability of employee action

7. Career Orientation
Because employment is based on technical qualifications, employees think of their work as a career
Thus with career orientation, there is a system of promotion according to seniority, achievement, or both
Promotion is dependent on judgment of superiors

8. Efficiency
According to Weber, bureaucracy maximizes rational decision making and administrative efficiency
The characteristics function to maximize efficiency because committed experts make rational decisions that are executed and coordinated in a disciplined way

9. Criticisms of the Weberian Bureaucratic Model
Weber’s model is criticized for several things:
1. Not being attentive to the dysfunctional features
2. Neglect of the informal organization
3. Does not deal with the potential internal contradictions among the elements in the model
4. Feminists denounce the model as gender biased

10. Functions and Dysfunctions of the Model
Division of labor can also produce boredom which leads to lower levels of productivity, or to a search on the part of employees for ways to make their work life more interesting
Impersonality may produce a rather sterile atmosphere where people interact as “nonpersons” resulting in low morale
Hierarchy of authority does enhance coordination but frequently at the expense of communication. Two of the major dysfunctions of hierarchy are distortion and blockage.

11. More Functions and Dysfunctions of the Model
Rules and regulations often produce organizational rigidity and goal displacement. Employees may become so rule oriented that they forget they are a means to achieve goals, not ends in themselves.
In Career orientation promotion is based on seniority and achievement which are not necessarily compatible.

12. The question now becomes: Under what conditions does each characteristic lead to functional but not dysfunctional consequences?

13. Functions and Dysfunctions of the Rules
Functions Dysfunctions
Explication Apathy reinforcement
Screening Goal displacement
Punishment-legitimizing Legalism
Leeway Indulgency
Punishment-centered rules are initiated by either workers or administrators, but not jointly, to coerce the other group to comply, and they result in punishment of one group by the other when the rules are violated, producing tension and conflict.
Representative rules are initiated and supported by both workers and administrators and are least likely to evoke dysfunctional consequences.

14. Neglect of the Informal Organization
The Weberian model has been criticized for its omission of the informal organization
The informal organization consists of :
--interpersonal relations
--it is the natural ordering or structuring that evolves from the needs of participants as they interact in the workplace
--it includes informal structure, informal norms, and informal patterns of leadership

15. A Feminist Critique of Bureaucracy
--Goes beyond the common accusation that qualified women in modern organizations do not receive equal treatment or compensation
--argues that in Weber’s model women are disadvantaged due to the emphasis on full-time commitment and extensive training as qualifications for job holding.
--bureaucracies are gender-biased not only in their application of appointment and promotion criteria but also in their selection of the criteria
--also argues that bureaucratic structures perpetuate systems of male domination
--gives priority to masculine virtues and values; puts males in dominant roles
--the feminine side is often repressed and devalued by bureaucracies –puts women in subordinate roles

17. Bureaucracy

18. 6 Characteristics of Bureaucratic Structure
Hierarchy of Authority
Specialization
Rules for Incumbents
Procedure Specifications
Impersonality
Technical Competence

19. Organizational Types Professional Structure Authoritarian Structure
Decision making delegated to the staff
Rules and procedures are guides
Administrators primary role is to serve teachers and facilitate the learning process
Authority based on position and hierarchy
Power is concentrated and flows from top to bottom
Basic principal of operation is disciplined compliance to the rules
Punishment-centered bureaucracy

20. Organizational Types (cont.)
Weberian Structure
Chaotic Structure
Professionalization and bureaucratization are complementary and emphasized
School effectiveness is predicted to be high
Functions most effectively in a simple and stable environment
Low degree of bureaucratization and professionalization
Inconsistency, contradiction and ineffectiveness are common
Authoritarian structure usually needed to get system back functioning

21. Typology of School Organizational Structure
Professional
Pattern
High
Low
Bureaucratic
Weberian
Authoritarian
Chaotic

22. Formalization and Centralization
Formalization: formal job definitions and procedural specifications that govern organizational activities
Centralization: concentration of decision making authority in upper management

23. Two Types of Formalization
Coercive
Enabling
Set of procedures that help employees deal more effectively with inevitable problems
Flexible set of guidelines
Set of procedures that attempts to force reluctant employees to comply
Procedures are designed to be followed exactly

24. Two Types of Authority Structure
Enabling Centralization
Hindering Centralization
Helps employees solve problems
Flexible, cooperative and collaborative
Administration help teachers by designing structures that facilitate teaching and learning
Calls for two way communication
Hierarchy system set in place
Administration takes over to solve problems
Innovation obstructed
Administrators use power to control and discipline teachers

25. Predicted Evolutionary Changes in School Structure
Chaotic Structure
Authoritarian Structure
Weberian Structure
Professional Structure

26. Mindful Schools
Focus on Failure: scanning for problems and trying to fix them before they become big problems
Reluctant to Accept Simplifications: goal is to simplify less and see more
Be Sensitive to the Core Operations: expect the unexpected, but remember what is vital to keep schools operating
Committed to Resilience: must detect and bounce back from mistakes
Deferring to Expertise: encourage a decision making process that relies on experience over status

27. A Typology of School Organization
ENABLING
STRUCTURE
Enabling
Hindering
MINDFUL
Mindful
Learning Organization
Mindful, but Hindering Organization
ORGANIZATION
Mindless
Mindless Organization
Autocratic Organization

28. 5 Basic Coordinating Mechanisms of Organizational Structure
Mutual Adjustments: coordination through the simple process of informal communication
Direct Supervision: coordination through simple command
Standardization of Work: specifying or programming the contents of the work
Standardization of Output: specifying the results of the work
Standardization of Skills: provides indirect control of work by specifying the kind of training required to do the work

29. The Five Basics Parts Of Organization
Strategic Apex
Middle Line
Tecno-structure
Support Staff
Operating Core

30. Five Configurations of Organization
Simple Structure: The strategic apex is the key part and direct supervision is the central coordinating device
Machine Bureaucracy: The technostructure is the key part and standardization of work processes is the central coordinating device.

31. Five Configurations of Organization (Cont.)
Professional Bureaucracy: The operating core is the key part and standardization of skills is the central coordinating device.
Divisionalized Form: The middle line is the key part and standardization of outputs is the central coordinating device.
Adhocracy: The support staff is the key part and mutual adjustment is the central coordinating device.

32. Simple Structure High degree of direct supervision
Small strategic apex
No middle line
Highly Centralized
Little technostructure
Little support staff
Little division of labor & specialization
Small administrative hierarchy

33. Simple Structure Cont.
Power centralized in the hands of the top administrator.
Communication flows informally, but most is between the top administrator and everyone else.
Common in small elementary schools where administrators commonly are autocratic or charismatic

34. Machine Bureaucracy Work processes are routine and standard
High degree of centralization supported by formalization
Rules and regulations govern this structure (formal communication)
Decision making follows the chain of authority from the top down

35. Machine Bureaucracy (Cont.)
A Few Large School Districts are Machine Bureaucracies.
Power tends to be centralized at the apex (Superintendant, Ass. Superintendants, etc.)
Many districts considered a cross between Machine Bureaucracy and Simple Bureaucracy.

36. Professional Bureaucracy
A Structure that permits both decentralization and standardization at the same time.
Relies on standardization of skills that professionals have acquired in their training.
Relationships more loosely coupled
Teamwork and collaboration among school professionals is essential if school is to be productive.

37. Simple Bureaucracy
Has Characteristics of both simple structure and machine bureaucracy
Highly Centralized, Highly Bureaucratic, but flat administrative structure
Common due to societal demands for control, accountability, standardized educational outcomes, and inexpensive services from schools.

38. Political Organization
This has to do with power, not structure.
This often becomes the dominating process and teaching and learning become secondary
High degree of conflict which leads to pressure for negotiation and alliance formation.
Usually short lived due to their ineffectiveness in education.

39. Loose Coupling Perspective
In order to deal with problem of variability in student abilities, teachers need freedom to make professional judgments.
Teachers are usually unobserved and given broad discretionary authority over students.
Tight organizational controls over who does work (hiring, certifying, and scheduling).
Loose Coupling Perspective

40. Loose Coupling Perspective
Most Organizations- Focus: Who performs work and how well work is performed
Schools-Focus: Who performs the work, Loose control over how well work is done

41. Professional and Bureaucratic Conflict
Orientation Orientation
Professional Bureaucratic
Colleague-Oriented reference group
Self-imposed standards of control
Autonomy in decision making
Subordination of the Organization
Disciplined compliance
Hierarchical Orientation