1. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint ® Slides prepared by Jay Withgott and Heidi Marcum Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Ch 11 Biodiversity and Conservation Biology Part 2: Environmental Issues and the Search for Solutions

2. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Conservation Biology Conservation biology is the scientific study of the nature and status of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions

3. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Introduction “Man did not weave the web of life– he is merely a strand in it. Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself.” -Chief Seattle, 1854 Extinctions are occurring at an alarming rate due to human behavior. As humans expand their habitat and introduce invasive species, more native species are put at risk. Biodiversity is important for the stability of ecosystems. When one species is removed from an ecosystem, it is hard to predict what impact it will have on the rest of the ecosystem.

4. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings More Introduction It is a difficult task, but scientists need to define and measure biodiversity to determine exactly what it is that we are at risk of losing. It is critical that we discuss how to protect biodiversity while we are still defining it. UN Decade on Biodiversity (12 min) Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=zpM-nkhZCgk#! Website http://www.cbd.int/2011-2020/http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=zpM-nkhZCgk#http://www.cbd.int/2011-2020/ Most recent update on UN Decade on Biodiversity (UN Biodiversity Report 3) (10 min) Video:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EGMkW_vo5GU&feature=player_embedded Website: http://www.cultureofscience.com/2011/09/23/attacks-on-biodiversity-an-emerging-trend-part-i/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EGMkW_vo5GU&feature=player_embeddedhttp://www.cultureofscience.com/2011/09/23/attacks-on-biodiversity-an-emerging-trend-part-i/ Why is Biodiversity so important? (4 min) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LkiiC4WOIKo http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LkiiC4WOIKo Great Intro on biodiversity especially keystone species (7:40) http://www.bozemanscience.com/055-biodiversity Endangered species slide show (5 min) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I-7wLdKjf2Y http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I-7wLdKjf2Y Einstein Quote Intrinsic Value of Biodiversity (4 min) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ksn4QY8pDj4&feature=fvwrel http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ksn4QY8pDj4&feature=fvwrel

5. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Essential Questions 1.How is the health and stability of our ecosystem related to biodiversity? 2.What impact will biodiversity loss have on humans and other life? 3.How can we protect biodiversity? 4.Given that it is impossible to find ANY information refuting the desperate state of biodiversity on Earth, why is it that humans continue to accelerate biodiversity loss?

6. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings True or False? 1.Some species are not important 2.If you have a lot of one kind of species (ex. pigeons) that indicates a healthy ecosystem. 3.A park is more bio diverse than a vacant lot. 4.Biodiversity is not important for humans

7. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Pre Test Part 1 1.All species on Earth have already been discovered. 2.More than one half of the world’s species live in tropical rainforests. 3.Just over 10 million species have been identified by scientists. 4.Earth has more species than it needs. 5.Most species do not benefit humans. 6.All habitats have the same number of species. 7.Biodiversity includes genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity. 8.Biological diversity is more threatened now than at any time in the past 65 million years.

8. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Pre Test Part 2 9.The loss of forests, wetlands, grasslands, and other habitats contributes to loss of biodiversity. 10.Many species become extinct without ever being identified. 11.Large plants, birds, and mammals make up half of the world’s species. 12.The countries with the most species of plants are located in Central and South America an in Southeast Asia. 13.Coral reefs are as rich in biodiversity as tropical forests. 14.Islands can be homes to species found nowhere else. 15.Fewer than 100 species currently provide most of the world’s food supply.

9. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Pre Test Continued Part 3 16.Crop breeders need a diversity of crop varieties in order to breed new varieties that resist insect pests and diseases. 17.Creating parks and zoos is the best way to preserve biodiversity. 18.The biological resources of developing countries are a possible source of income. 19.Two major causes of biodiversity loss are population growth and the increasing consumption of natural resources. 20. Once a species becomes endangered, it will become extinct.

10. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Pre Test Part 1 Answers 1.All species on Earth have already been discovered. To date, scientists have catalogued approximately 1.5 million species. Current estimations go as high as 100 million but most estimates are between 5 and 10 million1.5 million species100 million 2.More than one half of the world’s species live in tropical rainforests. True 3.Just over 10 million species have been identified by scientists. No. 1.5 million 4.Earth has more species than it needs. 5.Most species do not benefit humans. 6.All habitats have the same number of species. The amount of species is influenced by the latitudinal gradient—the amount of solar radiation and, thus, GPP

11. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings 7.Biodiversity includes genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity Yes. 8. Biological diversity is more threatened now than at any time in the past 65 million years. Yes

12. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Pre Test Part 2 9.The loss of forests, wetlands, grasslands, and other habitats contributes to loss of biodiversity. 10.Many species become extinct without ever being identified. 11.Large plants, birds, and mammals make up half of the world’s species. No 12.The countries with the most species of plants are located in Central and South America an in Southeast Asia. 13.Coral reefs are as rich in biodiversity as tropical forests. 14.Islands can be homes to species found nowhere else. 15.Fewer than 100 species currently provide most of the world’s food supply. Ninety percent of the world's food is derived from just 15 plant and 8 animal species.

13. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Pre Test Continued Part 3 16.Crop breeders need a diversity of crop varieties in order to breed new varieties that resist insect pests and diseases. 17.Creating parks and zoos is the best way to preserve biodiversity. No 18.The biological resources of developing countries are a possible source of income. 19.Two major causes of biodiversity loss are population growth and the increasing consumption of natural resources. 20. Once a species becomes endangered, it will become extinct.

14. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Thinking about Biodiversity… Is biodiversity important? Have we “ruined” our planet though activities that threaten species and cause extinctions? Can we save endangered species? Should we try to save every endangered species? Which ones? What is the criteria we should use to decide? http://www.abc.net.au/btn/story/s3974781.htm 4 minhttp://www.abc.net.au/btn/story/s3974781.htm Is there any way we can return to a way of life in which nature is the dominant force on the planet? Should we change our view of how we see nature? Have humans changed natural systems so much that we need to change our view that wilderness and natural parks and natural areas are the exception and not the norm.

15. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings THE ANTHROPOCENE

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19. We're living in the epoch some scientists call the "Anthropocene" an age in which human influence touches nearly everything on the planet

20. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings More than half the world's population lives in urban areas these days. And that percentage is rapidly increasing. Some scientists say our planet is now so influenced by our cities and all that human activity that we entered a new geologic era. They call it the Anthropocene, and with that change, we should be rethinking the relationship between civilization and nature.

21. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Earth History in 1 minute https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V2EGuajQxXI Welcome to the Anthropocene (3:40 video) Good Intro https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fvgG-pxlobk&safe=active Image video of the Anthropocene 1:40 A look at Humanity's geological epoch: the Anthropocene. In collaboration with Elementa: Embracing the concept that basic knowledge can foster sustainable solutions for society, Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene is a new scientific journal published on an open-access, public-good basis—available freely and immediately to the world. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mfDm7rM9_-8 Rethinking The Relationship Between Civilization And Nature 6 min Radio September 26, 2014 5:22 AM ET http://www.npr.org/2014/09/26/351678359/rethinking-the-relationship-between-civilization-and-nature NPR Science Friday. 24 min Wilderness, National Parks, Fighting Fires Conservation or Preservation Current Mass Extinction Crisis Invasive species http://www.npr.org/2013/09/27/226837805/saving-wild-places-in-the-anthropocene Bullit Center (The greenest building on Earth) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cr5CxQmS-Mw&safe=active

22. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Conservation Biology Conservation biology is the scientific study of the nature and status of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions

23. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Biodiversity provides free ecosystem services Provides food, shelter, fuel Purifies air and water, and detoxifies wastes Stabilizes climate, moderates floods, droughts, wind, temperature Generates and renews soil fertility and cycles nutrients Pollinates plants and controls pests and disease Maintains genetic resources Provides cultural and aesthetic benefits Allows us to adapt to change The annual value of just 17 ecosystem services = $16 - 54 trillion per year

24. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings This lecture will help you understand: The scope of Earth’s biodiversity Background rates and mass extinction Primary causes of biodiversity loss The benefits of biodiversity Conservation biology Biodiversity conservation efforts

25. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Central Case: Saving the Siberian tiger The largest cat in the world The Russian Far East mountains house the last remaining tigers Nearly became extinct due to hunting, poaching and habitat destruction International conservation groups saved the species from extinction -Research, education, zoos, and captive breeding programs

26. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Biodiversity encompasses several levels Humans are reducing Earth’s diversity of life Biodiversity – sum total of all organisms in an area -Split into three specific levels: -Species diversity -Genetic diversity -Ecosystem diversity

27. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Species diversity Species Diversity = the number or variety of species in the world or in a particular region -Richness = the number of species -Evenness or relative abundance = extent to which numbers of individuals of different species are equal or skewed -Speciation generates new species and adds to species richness -Extinction reduces species richness

28. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Species Diversity in a meadow community

29. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings The taxonomy of species Taxonomists = scientists who classify species -Physical appearance and genetics determines a species -Genera = related species are grouped together -Families = groups of genera Every species has a two-part scientific name: genus and species

30. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Subspecies: the level below a species Subspecies = populations of species that occur in different areas and differ slightly from each other -Divergence stops short of separating the species -Subspecies are denoted with a third part of the scientific name Siberian tiger = Panthera tigris altaica Bengal tiger = Panthera tigris tigris

31. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Genetic diversity Encompasses the differences in DNA among individuals within species and populations The raw material for adaptation to local conditions Populations with higher genetic diversity can survive -They can cope with environmental change Populations with low genetic diversity are vulnerable -To environmental change -Disease -Inbreeding depression = genetically similar parents mate and produce inferior offspring

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33. Ecosystem diversity Ecosystem diversity = the number and variety of ecosystems Also encompasses differing communities and habitats Rapid vegetation change and varying landscapes within an ecosystem promote higher levels of biodiversity

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35. Some groups contain more species than others Species are not evenly distributed among taxonomic groups -Insects predominate over all other life-forms -40% of all insects are beetles Groups accumulate species by -Adaptive radiation -Allopatric & Sympatric speciation -Low rates of extinction

36. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Insects outnumber all other species

37. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Measuring biodiversity is not easy Out of the estimated 3 - 100 million species on Earth, only 1.7 - 2 million species have been successfully catalogued Very difficult to identify species -Many remote spots on Earth remain unexplored -Small organisms are easily overlooked -Many species look identical until thoroughly examined Entomologist Terry Erwin found 163 beetle species specialized on one tree species

38. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Biodiversity is unevenly distributed Living things are distributed unevenly across Earth Latitudinal gradient = species richness increases towards the equator Canada has 30 - 100 species of breeding birds, while Costa Rica has more than 600 species

39. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Latitudinal gradient has many causes Climate stability, high plant productivity, and no glaciation Tropical biomes support more species and show more species evenness The more concentrated solar energy, the more GPP, the more species. -Diverse habitats increase species diversity Human disturbance can increase habitat diversity -But only at the local level

40. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Biodiversity losses and species extinction Extinction = occurs when the last member of a species dies and the species ceases to exist Extirpation = the disappearance of a particular population from a given area, but not the entire species globally -Can lead to extinction

41. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Extinction is a natural process Paleontologists estimate 99% of all species that ever lived are now extinct Background rate of extinction = natural extinctions for a variety of reasons Background: -one species per million species per year, or between 10 and 100 species per yearspecies (counting all organisms such as insects, bacteria, and fungi, not just the large vertebrates we are most familiar with)bacteriafungivertebrates Current: -27,000 species per year to extinction from those habitats alone. -(estimates based on the rate at which the area of tropical forests is being reduced, and their large numbers of specialized species, are that we may now be losing)

42. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Earth has experienced five mass extinctions In the past 440 million years, mass extinctions have eliminated at least 50% of all species After every mass extinction the biodiversity returned to or exceeded its original state

43. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings 5 mass extinctions

44. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings The current mass extinction is human caused During this Quaternary period, we may lose more than half of all species -Hundreds of human-induced species extinctions, and multitudes of others, teeter on the brink of extinction The current global extinction rate is 100 to 1,000 times greater than the background rate -This rate will increase tenfold in future decades due to human population growth and resource consumption

45. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings People have hunted species to extinction for millennia Extinctions followed human arrival on islands and continents

46. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Current extinction rates are higher than normal The IUCN Red List (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) = an updated list of species facing high risks of extinctionsThe IUCN Red List -23% of mammal species -12% of bird species -31 - 86% of all other species Since 1970, 58 fish species, 9 bird species, and 1 mammal species has gone extinct -In the U.S., in the last 500 years, 236 animal and 17 plant species are confirmed extinct -Actual numbers are undoubtedly higher

47. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Biodiversity loss is more than extinction Decreasing numbers are accompanied by smaller species’ geographic ranges Genetic, ecosystem, and species diversity are being lost. The Living Planet Index summarizes trends in populations -Between 1970 and 2003, the Index fell by 30%

48. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Biodiversity loss has many causes Reasons for biodiversity losses are multifaceted, complex, and hard to determine -Factors may interact synergistically Five (Six?) primary causes of population decline are: -Habitat alteration -Invasive species -Pollution -Population -Overharvesting Global climate change now is the fifth cause H.I.P.P.O.

49. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Habitat alteration causes biodiversity loss The greatest cause of biodiversity loss -Farming simplifies communities -Grazing modifies the grassland structure and species composition -Clearing forests removes resources organisms need -Hydroelectric dams turn rivers into reservoirs upstream -Urbanization and suburban sprawl reduce natural communities -A few species (i.e., pigeons, rats) benefit from changing habitats

50. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Habitat alteration has occurred in every biome Particularly in tropical rainforests, savannas, and tropical dry forests

51. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Invasive species cause biodiversity loss Introduction of non-native species to new environments -Accidental: zebra mussels -Deliberate: food crops Island species are especially vulnerable Invaders have no natural predators, competitors, or parasites Cost billions of dollars in economic damage

52. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Pollution causes biodiversity loss Harms organisms in many ways -Air pollution degrades forest ecosystems -Water pollution adversely affects fish and amphibians -Agricultural runoff harms terrestrial and aquatic species -The effects of oil and chemical spills on wildlife are dramatic and well known The damage to wildlife and ecosystems caused by pollution can be severe -But it tends to be less than the damage caused by habitat alteration or invasive species

53. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Overharvesting causes biodiversity loss Vulnerable species are large, few in number, long-lived, and have few young (K-selected species) -The Siberian tiger is hunted without rules and regulations -The early 1990s saw increased poaching because of powerful economic incentives -Many other species affected: Atlantic gray whale, sharks, gorillas Today the oceans contain only 10% of the large animals they once did

54. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Climate change causes biodiversity loss Emissions of greenhouse gases warms temperatures -Modifies global weather patterns and increases the frequency of extreme weather events -Increases stress on populations and forces organisms to shift their geographic ranges Most animals and plants will not be able to cope

55. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Warming has been the greatest in the Arctic The polar bear is being considered for the endangered species list

56. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Biodiversity loss has a variety of causes

57. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Biodiversity provides free ecosystem services Provides food, shelter, fuel Purifies air and water, and detoxifies wastes Stabilizes climate, moderates floods, droughts, wind, temperature Generates and renews soil fertility and cycles nutrients Pollinates plants and controls pests and disease Maintains genetic resources Provides cultural and aesthetic benefits Allows us to adapt to change The annual value of just 17 ecosystem services = $16 - 54 trillion per year

58. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Biodiversity helps maintain ecosystem function Biodiversity increases the stability and resilience of communities and ecosystems -Decreased biodiversity reduces a natural system’s ability to function and provide services to our society The loss of a species affects ecosystems differently -If the species can be functionally replaced by others, it may make little difference -Extinction of a keystone species may cause other species to decline or disappear “To keep every cog and wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering” (Aldo Leopold)

59. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Biodiversity enhances food security Genetic diversity within crops is enormously valuable -Turkey’s wheat crops received $50 billion worth of disease resistance from wild wheat Wild strains provide disease resistance and have the ability to grow back year after year without being replanted New potential food crops are waiting to be used -Serendipity berry produces a sweetener 3,000 times sweeter than sugar

60. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Some potential new food sources

61. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Organisms provide drugs and medicines Each year pharmaceutical products owing their origin to wild species generate up to $150 billion in sales -The rosy periwinkle produces compounds that treat Hodgkin's disease and leukemia

62. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Biodiversity generates economic benefits People like to experience protected natural areas, creating economic opportunities for residents, particularly in developing countries -Costa Rica: rainforests -Australia: Great Barrier Reef -Belize: reefs, caves, and rainforests A powerful incentive to preserve natural areas and reduce impacts on the landscape and on native species But, too many visitors to natural areas can degrade the outdoor experience and disturb wildlife

63. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings People value and seek out nature Biophilia = connections that humans subconsciously seek with life -Our affinity for parks and wildlife -Keeping of pets -High value of real estate with views of natural lands Nature deficit disorder = alienation from the natural environment -May be behind the emotional and physical problems of the young

64. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Do we have ethical obligations to other species? Humans are part of nature and need resources to survive But, we also have conscious reasoning ability and can control our actions -Our ethics have developed from our intelligence and our ability to make choices Many people feel that other organisms have intrinsic value and an inherent right to exist

65. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Conservation biology responds to biodiversity loss Conservation biology = devoted to understanding the factors that influence the loss, protection, and restoration of biodiversity -Arose as scientists became alarmed at the degradation of natural systems -An applied and goal- oriented science

66. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Conservation scientists work at multiple levels Conservation biologists integrate evolution and extinction with ecology and environmental systems -Design, test, and implement ways to mitigate human impacts Conservation geneticists = study genetic attributes of organisms to infer the status of their population Minimum viable population = how small a population can become before it runs into problems (The Extinction Vortex) Metapopulations = a network of subpopulations -Small populations are most vulnerable to extinction and need special attention -http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/habitat-fragmentation- metapopulations-and-wildlife-corridors.html#lesson 9 minhttp://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/habitat-fragmentation- metapopulations-and-wildlife-corridors.html#lesson

67. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Extinction Vortex Extinction Vortex of Wallabies 2min https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ENCA T3j4UB8

68. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Island biogeography Equilibrium theory of island biogeography = explains how species come to be distributed among oceanic islands -Also applies to “habitat islands” – patches of one habitat type isolated within a “sea” of others -Explains how the number of species on an island results from an equilibrium between immigration and extirpation -Predicts an island’s species richness based on the island’s size and distance from the mainland

69. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Species richness results from island size and distance Fewer species colonize an island far from the mainland Large islands have higher immigration rates Large islands have lower extinction rates

70. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings The species-area curve Large islands contain more species than small islands -They are easier to find and have lower extinction rates -They possess more habitats

71. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Small “islands” of forest rapidly lose species Forests are fragmented by roads and logging Small forest fragments lose diversity fastest -Starting with large species Fragmentation is one of the prime threats to biodiversity

72. What is the Edge effect and how does it affect biodiversity? The cowbird and the woodthrush Effects on Tropical Forests http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/489/501463/CDA52_ 2/CDA52_2a/CDA52_2a.htm

74. Ecosystems integrate spatially Ecosystems vary greatly in size The term “ecosystem” is most often applied to self-contained systems of moderate geographic extent Adjacent ecosystems may share components and interact Ecotones = transitional zones between two ecosystems in which elements of different ecosystems mix

75. Two Protection Approaches Single Species Approach –Protection efforts and funds are aimed at protecting one species –Usually protects charismatic species. –May take funds away from projects that might better benefit all species. Ecosystem Approach –Protection efforts and funds are aimed at protecting entire ecosystems –May protect a larger amount of less charismatic species at the expense of one charismatic species.

76. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Should conservation focus on endangered species? Endangered Species Act (1973) (ESA) = forbids the government and private citizens from taking actions that destroy endangered species or their habitats -To prevent extinction -Stabilize declining populations -Enable populations to recover (Recovery Plan that identifies “critical habitat.” As of 2007, the U.S. had 1,312 species listed as endangered or threatened

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78. ESA Protection Steps 1.Petition to the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) or the US National Marine fisheries Service (USNMFS) 2.USFWS or USNMFS decides whether the data shows protection is “warranted”. (90 days) 3.USFWS or USNMFS conducts its own “status review” (One Year) 4.If approved and added to the endangered species list, the agencies –Restrict “taking”—harassing, harming, trapping, transporting, or selling a species –Develop and carryout recovery plans by working with property owners and public interests to identify and protect “critical habitat”

79. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Despite opposition, the ESA has had successes Peregrine falcons, brown pelicans, bald eagles, and others have recovered and are no longer listed Intensive management has stabilized other species -The red-cockaded woodpecker -40% of declining populations are now stable These successes occur despite underfunding of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service -In recent years, political forces have attempted to weaken the ESA

80. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings The ESA is controversial Many Americans support protection of endangered species Opponents feel that the ESA values endangered organisms more than the livelihood of people -Private land use will be restricted if an endangered species is present -“Shoot, shovel, and shut up” = landowners conceal the presence of endangered species on their land But, the ESA has stopped few development projects -Habitat conservation plans and safe harbor agreements (Offsets) = landowners can harm species if they improve habitat for the species in other places

81. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Other countries have their own version of the ESA Species at Risk Act (2002) = Canada’s endangered species law -Stresses cooperation between landowners and provincial governments -Criticized as being too weak Other nations’ laws are not enforced -The Wildlife Conservation Society has to help pay for Russians to enforce their own anti-poaching laws

82. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Protecting biodiversity Captive breeding – individuals are bred and raised with the intent of reintroducing them into the wild -Zoos and botanical gardens Some reintroductions are controversial -Ranchers opposed the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park -Some habitat is so fragmented, a species cannot survive

83. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Protecting biodiversity Cloning – a technique to create more individuals and save species from extinction -Most biologists agree that these efforts are not adequate to recreate the lost biodiversity Ample habitat and protection in the wild are needed to save species

84. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Protecting biodiversity Build Wildlife Corridors to connect habitat fragments -Provides access to mates to prevent inbreeding and maintain genetic diversity -Provides access to dispersed food supply and allows recovery of local prey populations and thus, prevents depletion of local food sources. -Provides access to seasonal food sources (Migration) or to safe reproductive sites. -Wildlife corridors in Africa 2 min http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=48HadfRV65U&safe=active http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=48HadfRV65U&safe=active -Corridors in Southwest 2 min http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jQAfXssrfKY&safe=active http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jQAfXssrfKY&safe=active

85. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings This map was used in the United States Senate to stop the ratification of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity

86. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Umbrella species Conservation biologists use particular species as tools to conserve communities and ecosystems -Protecting the habitat of these umbrella species helps protect less-charismatic animals that would not have generated public interest Flagship species – large and charismatic species used as spearheads for biodiversity conservation -The World Wildlife Fund’s panda bear Some organizations are moving beyond the single species approach to focus on whole landscapes

87. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings International conservation efforts UN Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1973) (CITES) – protects endangered species by banning international transport of their body parts Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) – -Seeks to conserve biodiversity -Use biodiversity in a sustainable manner -Ensure the fair distribution of biodiversity’s benefits -By 2007, 188 nations had signed on -Iraq, Somalia, the Vatican, and the U.S. did not join

88. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Biodiversity hotspots Biodiversity hotspots – prioritizes regions most important globally for biodiversity -Support a great number of endemic species = species found nowhere else in the world -The area must have at least 1.500 endemic plant species (0.5% of the world total) -It must have lost 70% of its habitat due to human impact

89. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings There are 34 global biodiversity hotspots 2.3% of the planet’s land surface contains 50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species

90. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Community- based conservation Protecting habitats makes good sense, but this affects people living in and near these areas Community-based conservation = conservation biologists actively engage local people in protecting land and wildlife -Protecting land deprives people access to resources -But, it can guarantee that these resources will not be used up or sold to foreign corporations and can instead be sustainably managed Many projects have succeeded -But, others have not, due mainly to funding problems

91. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Innovative economic strategies Debt-for-nature swap = a conservation organization pays off a portion of a developing country’s international debt -In exchange for a promise by the country to set aside reserves -Fund environmental education, and -Better manage protected areas Conservation concession = conservation organizations pay nations to conserve, and not sell, resources

92. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Important Legislation and Treaties United States Legislation Endangered Species Act Wilderness Act Wild and Scenic Rivers Act The Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act Lacy Act International Treaties CITES The Madrid Protocol UN Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)

93. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Lacey Act (1900) This a conservation law prohibited the transportation of illegally captured or prohibited animals across state lines. It was the first federal law protecting wildlife, and is still in effect, though it has been revised several times. Today the law is primarily used to prevent the importation or spread of potentially dangerous non-native species.

94. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings The Wilderness Act To preserve large expanses of pristine lands. No roads or development are allowed. “A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape, is hereby recognized as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.”

95. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act (1934) The Act requires the purchase of a stamp by waterfowl hunters. Revenue generated is used to acquire important wetlands. Since its inception, the program has resulted in the protection of approximately 4.5 million acres (18,000 km²) of waterfowl habitat.

96. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (1968) Selected rivers in the United States are preserved for possessing outstandingly, remarkable scenic, recreational, geologic, fish and wildlife, historic, cultural, or other similar values. Rivers, or sections of rivers, so designated are preserved in their free-flowing condition and are not dammed or otherwise improved. Designation as a wild and scenic river is not the same as designation as a national park, and does not generally does not confer the same level of protection as a Wilderness Area designation. Instead of enacting strict and mandatory conservation measures, the goal is often to preserve the character of a river.

97. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of 1973 (CITES) An international agreement between governments drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the World Conservation Union (IUCN). Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival and it accords varying degrees of protection to more than 33,000 species of animals and plants.

98. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings The Treaty and related agreements regulate international relations with respect to Earth's only continent without a native population. It set aside this continent as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and banned military activity on that continent. This was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War. Madrid Protocol (Antarctic Treaty)

99. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Conclusion Loss of biodiversity will result in a mass extinction Primary causes of biodiversity loss are: -Habitat alteration, invasive species, pollution, overharvesting of biotic resources, and climate change Human society cannot function without biodiversity’s benefits Science can help save species, preserve habitats, restore populations, and keep natural ecosystems intact

100. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION: Review Which level is NOT included in the concept of biodiversity? a)Species b)Genetics c)Ecosystems d)All of the above are included in this concept

101. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION: Review What happens when a species experiences “inbreeding depression”? a)The species becomes too large for the resource base b)Genetically similar parents mate and produce inferior offspring c)Genetically similar parents mate and produce superior offspring d)The number and variety of species increases

102. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION: Review According to the concept of “latitudinal gradient,” which of the following happens? a)Species richness increases towards the equator b)Species richness decreases towards the equator c)Species richness decreases over time d)Countries like Canada have many more species than expected

103. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION: Review Which of the following is the major cause of extinction? a)Invasive species b)Pollution c)Habitat loss d)Overharvesting

104. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION: Review Biodiversity does all of the following, except… a)Provide ecosystem services b)Decrease food security c)Maintain ecosystem function d)Provide aesthetic benefits

105. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION: Review According to the theory of island biogeography, which island would have the highest species richness? a)A large island, close to the mainland b)A large island, far from the mainland c)A small island, close to the mainland d)A small island, far from the mainland

106. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION: Review A “biodiversity hotspot” is…? a)An area located near the equator b)An area that supports few, but large, species c)An area that contains naturally high numbers of people d)An area that contains a large number of endemic species

107. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION: Weighing the Issues If a pharmaceutical company produces a medicine from a plant found in Costa Rica that will earn millions of dollars, who should reap the financial benefits? a)The company, because it produced the drug b)Costa Rica, because it had the plant that produced the drug c)Taxpayers, because they fund lots of research through their tax dollars d)Both the company and Costa Rica, because both played a vital part

108. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION: Weighing the Issues Have you ever personally experienced evidence of the biophilia hypothesis? a)Yes, I frequently feel a connection to other living things and nature b)Yes, sometimes, on a particularly lovely day c)Maybe, but I’m not sure d)Definitely not, unless I was earning money from using nature

109. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data Where would ecotourists go to view the maximum species richness on these islands? a)Redonda b)Montserrat c)Puerto Rico d)Hispaniola

110. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data Which biome lost the most area by 1950; which biome lost the most area in recent decades? a)Temperate grassland; tropical dry forest b)Desert; savanna c)Chaparral; tundra d)Temperate grassland; desert