1. Motivation and Emotion

2. Motivation involves goal directed behavior ….it also energizes and directs behavior

3.  Drive Theory  Incentive Theory  Evolutionary Theory

4.  Drive theories say that human organisms try to maintain homeostasis  Homeostasis is a state of physiological equilibrium or stability  A drive is an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension.

5.  An incentive is an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior  Drive theories emphasize internal states of tension that push people in one direction, while incentive theories emphasize external stimuli that pull people in certain directions.

7.  Emphasizes the idea that we are motivated for the adaptive value of the motive.  1. Affiliation: Why might people develop a need to belong?  2. Dominance: Why is it that males are typically more dominant than females?  Achievement, aggression and sex drives can be other motives that we have in order to pass genes on to the next generation

8.  Why do we eat??????  Cannon and Washburn (1912) observed the association between stomach contractions and the experience of hunger, with them causing hunger.

9. Two centers have been shown to impact hunger in the hypothalamus; the lateral hypothalamus (hunger center) and the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (center for fullness or satiety). Today the paraventricular nucleus has been found to make an important impact on modulation of hunger along with the arcuate nucleus, more important than previously thought!

12. Impact is more on the neural circuits rather than the anatomy of the brain and the neurotransmitters involved (serotonin and neuropeptide Y)

13.  Food forms glucose which is a simple sugar that is an important source of the bodies energy.  The theory by Jean Mayer (1968) proposes that the brain monitors the glucose level in the body by glucostats, (glucostatic theory) which are neurons sensitive to glucose in the surrounding fluid.  But the stomach does still have an impact after all by sending signals to the brain via the vagus nerve(fullness) and others (satiety)

14.  Hormones impact hunger and the most important one is insulin, which is secreted by the pancreas. (Too little---diabetes)

15.  Two other hormones play an important role.  Leptin is produced by fat cells throughout the body and released into the bloodstream and tells the body about its fat stores.  Ghrelin cause the stomach to contract and promotes hunger. When the stomach is full, CCK is released to tell the brain we are satiated to release hunger

16.  Hunger can be socially motivated.  Learned preferences and Habits  Stress and Eating

17.  Palatability  Quantity available  Variety of foods  Presence of others

20.  Criterion 1- If the body weight exceeds their ideal body weight by 20%.  31% of males & 35% of females in the US are considered obese

21. Body Mass Index (BMI) weight divided by height in meters squared (kg/m2)  BMI controls for variations in height  BMI of 25-29.9 is overweight, over 30 is obese. 50% of American are overweight.

22.  BMI changes depending on your age and also changes as you age or for boys vs. girls

23.  Evolutionary views: why so fat now?? Is it an excess of the food supply?  Schachter’s externality hypothesis  Dieting- At any time 21% of men and 39% of women are dieting  Twin and Adoption Studies  Set Point Theory  Excessive eating and limited exercise

24.  Why are Americans so overweight when we value slimness….learned helplessness?

27. Sex and Gender Sex: Biologically based and genetically determined. Either male or female Gender: Socially constructed, the concept of masculinity or femininity But…is that all there is??? A third option is androgyny or an intersection of the two. (Pat)

28. Biological Factors Hypothalamus and Pituitary glands regulate secretions of hormones by gonads in the ovaries and testes In females, the hormone is estrogen. In males, it is androgen or testosterone. In many species, females are only sexually receptive just prior to ovulation (dogs) and if a male’s testes are removed they lose all sexual interest. Higher levels of testosterone correlate with higher rates of sexual activity in both sexes.

29. Genetic Anomalies Each parent contribute a chromosome and sometimes things go wrong. For example women give an X chromosome and the father give either an X or Y. Fetuses are undifferentiated for sex until 8 weeks when the Y chromosome causes the body to secrete testosterone and the body forms testicles.

30. Genetic Anomalies Males with XXY have Klinefelter’s Syndrome. The symptoms are infertility, enlarged breasts, small firm testicles, small penis, sparse facial hair, long legs and short trunk.

31. XYY are “supermen” and aggressive, tall and low IQ. They also have difficulty with language There are many others as this is not that uncommon. Genetic Anomalies

32. Sexual Motivation and Behavior; The Human Sexual response Masters and Johnson (1960) were involved in the research of the human sexual stages; excitement, plateau, orgasm and resolution

34. Differences by gender

35. Excitement Phase The level of physical arousal, muscle tension, respiration and heart rate escalates rapidly. Vasocongestion or the engorgement of blood vessels can be found in both men and women. In the male, it is characterized by penile erection and swollen testes. In the female, it leads to a swelling of the vaginal lips and vaginal lubrication.

36. Males During Excitement and Plateau

37. Males During Orgasm and Resolution

38. Females During Excitement and Plateau

39. Females During Orgasm and Resolution

40. Plateau Phase During this phase arousal continues to build at a slower pace. Vasocongestion continues Clitoris is more exposed Men may secrete fluid from tip of penis (not ejaculation but may contain sperm) The bodily changes continue to prepare the body for the act of sexual intercourse.

41. Orgasm Phase Orgasm occurs when sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity and is discharged in a series of muscular contractions that pulsate through the pelvic area. Sharp increase in heart rate, blood pressure and respiration One big difference between men and women are that women can be multi-orgasmic. However, women are more likely to have intercourse without orgasm which many believe is environmental. Men ejaculate semen.

42. Resolution Phase The changes gradually subside with orgasm and men experience a refractory period. A refractory period is a time following orgasm during which males are largely unresponsive to further stimulation. Masters and Johnson found that sexual behavior, like eating and hunger, involves a combination of biological and social processes

43. Masters and Johnson The importance of this study was that they demonstrated that sexual problems were typically caused by psychological factors not physical ones (connect with Viagra)

44. Environmental Factors-Viewing Sex in the Media Films, especially R-rated ones shape or alter attitudes of sex. They can lead to expectation of what it is supposed to be like (soap operas) Erotic material may alter attitudes that eventually influence sexual behavior There has been a correlation shown between aggressive pornography and sex crime rates. Aggressive porn usually degrade women and depicts violence against women

45. Studies 1984 Study: Male and female undergrads exposed to large doses of porn (3-6 films a week for 6 weeks) developed more liberal attitudes about sexual practices, such as viewing premarital and extramarital sex as more acceptable.

46. More Studies 1988 Study: Suggests that viewing sexually explicit films make some people dissatisfied with their own sexual interactions Thus, porn may create unrealistic expectations about sexual relations.

47. Evolutionary Analysis Robert Trivers’s (1972) parental involvement theory states that each sex has something to invest in terms of time, energy, survival risk and forgone opportunities. So therefore they must evaluate these things in order to produce and nurture offspring. The sex that makes the smaller investment (time and energy wise) will compete for mating opportunities with the sex that makes the larger investment. HOWEVER, The sex with the larger investment is more discriminating in selecting its partners (costs) Is this true for humans?

48. Mate Preferences Most couples have similar characteristics (Matching Hypothesis) Yet, if there are differences, they are usually in socioeconomic status and age. The evolutionary view of why men prefer younger more attractive women….more reproductive years associated with health and fertility. Women, however, look for intelligence, ambition, education, income and social status (material resources) Is this in most or all cultures?

49. Older Man, Younger Woman: Why?

50. Always the norm?

51. Is it the norm for the woman to be older?

53. Cultural Data David Buss and other psychologists’ did a cross cultural study of 37 different cultures Results: 10,000 people took a survey about what they look for in a mate Women in both industrial and 3 rd world countries place a higher value on status, ambition, financial prospects Men on youth and attractiveness

54. If gender is a Social Construct, then is it learned? If so, how? Gender roles: Expectations about what is appropriate behavior for each sex Gender Stereotypes are widely held beliefs about females’ and males’ abilities, personal traits and social behavior. Gender Socialization is a process where social values and norms are taught and learned either consciously or unconsciously and can be through socializing agents such as the media.

55. Sexual Orientation Refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex, or either sex. Heterosexuals: opposite sex Homosexual:Same sex Bisexual: Either sex

56. Alfred Kinsey Studies people who consider themselves to be heterosexual and found that they have had homosexual experiences and vice versa. Concluded that it is more accurate to view heterosexuality and homosexuality as end points along a continuum. Devised a seven point scale

57. Yet, how common is homosexuality? It is hard to determine because how do you define it if people have had various types of experiences? Prejudice also comes into play Studies show homosexuality to be 10% but this may be inflated.

58. Nature versus Nurture?

59. Learned or Biology?

60. Biological Theories Up until the 1990’s, biological theorists tried to explain homosexuality in terms of hormones with little or no success. However in 1990, Bailey and Pillard studied twins and adopted children. The results were: 52% of identical twins were gay 22% of fraternal twins were gay 11% of adopted brothers were gay Similar results were found in lesbians Brain differences/Hormone secretions

61. Environmental Theories of Homosexuality Freudian theorists argued that a male is likely to become gay if he has a domineering mother and a weak father. Extensive research has shown that upbringing has failed to support the idea. However, it has become apparent that extremely feminine behavior in young boys or masculine behavior in young girls does predict the subsequent development of homosexuality.

62. Homosexuality in Nature

63. Fear of Homosexuality???

64. Affiliation: In Search of Belongingness Humans are social animals and have meaningful contact with others. Humans are social animals and have meaningful contact with others. An affiliation motive is the need to associate with others and maintain social bonds. An affiliation motive is the need to associate with others and maintain social bonds. It includes the need for companionship, friendship and love. It includes the need for companionship, friendship and love.

65. So what? People who score high on the affiliation motive on the TAT test (see other slide), spend MORE TIME DEVOTED to interpersonal activities. People who score high on the affiliation motive on the TAT test (see other slide), spend MORE TIME DEVOTED to interpersonal activities. They also devote more time to conversations and letter writing than others do. They also devote more time to conversations and letter writing than others do. They also worry about acceptance than those with a low affiliation drive do. They also worry about acceptance than those with a low affiliation drive do.

66. Achievement: In search of Excellence  The achievement motive is the need to master difficult challenges, to outperform others, and to meet high standards of excellence.  It also involves the DESIRE to excel especially in competition with others.  David McClelland – analyzed literature from various culture

68. Individual Differences in Achievement & Affiliation  Individual motives measured by the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)  It is a projective test, one that requires subjects to respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways to reveal their personal motives and traits.  Often they are pictures of people in ambiguous scenes open to interpretation.

75. What does the test reveal?  The themes of these stories are then scored to measure the strength of various needs.  High achievers work harder and more persistently on tasks than people low in the need for achievement and they handle negative feedback more effectively than others. They also delay gratification in order to pursue long-term goals but often chose intermediate challenges

76. Situational Factors of Achieving Behavior  Atkinson (1974), working off of McClelland’s work, identified some important situational determinants. 1. The strength of one’s motivation to achieve success (stable aspect of personality) 2. The estimate of the probability of success (vary from task to task) 3. The incentive value of success (tangible and intangible rewards)

77. More Situational Factors  As tasks get easier, success get less satisfying.  When the probability and incentive value of success are weighed together, moderately challenging tasks seem to offer the best overall value.

78. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (p.343)  The most basic needs are physiological like thirst and hunger and security  If you achieve satisfaction of needs on one level, it activates the needs at the next level  People have an innate drive toward personal growth

79. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

80. More Maslow  Top of the pyramid is growth needs; the need for knowledge, understanding and order.  The need for self-actualization is the need to fulfill one’ POTENTIAL and is the highest need.  Not being able to achieve this or utilize their talents or pursue true interests often feel frustration.

81. Elements of Emotional Experience Emotion involves the following: 1.A subjective conscious experience (cognitive part) 2.Bodily arousal (the physiological part) 3.Characteristic overt expressions (the behavioral part)

82. Cognitive- interpretation of emotions Highly personal and subjective Difficult to regulate Individual variability Previously stressing the negative, positive psychology has emerged Discuss Assignment and handout

83. The Physiological Component The biology of emotions is complex and can be found in various places in the brain and through various neurotransmitters ANS, sympathetic division, endocrine system (pituitary & adrenal), hypothalamus, & amygdala

84. ANS AND EMOTION Regulates the activity of glands, smooth muscles and blood vessels (fight or flight) “Lump in your throat” Goose bumps Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) is an increase in the electrical conductivity of the skin that occurs when sweat glands in crease their activity

85. Can the response be the same?

86. Tests The GSR is an index of arousal used to measure emotional response. Polygraphs (lie detectors) record autonomic fluctuations. They are about 85-90% accurate and people claim validity. Do you think people can fool the lie detector?

87. Show the video!!! Lie to me clip Episode 2 TED TALK on lying Spot the fake smile activity!

88. Behavioral- Nonverbal Component Overt expressions “body language” Paul Ekman’s Facial Feedback Hypothesis According to Ekman, there are six functional emotions: Happiness, Sadness, Anger, Fear, Surprise, Disgust Cultural variations Display rules- norms that regulate the appropriate expression of emotions

90. Theories of Emotions James-Lange TheoryJames-Lange Theory Cannon-Bard TheoryCannon-Bard Theory Schachter’s Two-Factor TheorySchachter’s Two-Factor Theory Evolutionary Theories of EmotionEvolutionary Theories of Emotion

91. James Lange Theory Perception of the visceral arousal leads to the conscious feelings of fear.Perception of the visceral arousal leads to the conscious feelings of fear. Example: See the rattlesnake, feel the response and call it fear.Example: See the rattlesnake, feel the response and call it fear.

92. Theory comparison

93. Cannon-Bard Theory Lange Theory was wrong, our reactions are too slow to determine emotional responses.Lange Theory was wrong, our reactions are too slow to determine emotional responses. Emotion is the result of the information going simultaneously (conscious experience).Emotion is the result of the information going simultaneously (conscious experience).

94. Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory To experience emotions, one mustTo experience emotions, one must Be physically arousedBe physically aroused Cognitively label the arousalCognitively label the arousal

95. Evolutionary Theories Darwin believed that emotions developed because they are adaptive and a reaction to certain stimuli, often before and without thought.Darwin believed that emotions developed because they are adaptive and a reaction to certain stimuli, often before and without thought. Primary emotions (8 to 10 exist) with six the most common; fear, anger, joy, disgust, interest, surprise.Primary emotions (8 to 10 exist) with six the most common; fear, anger, joy, disgust, interest, surprise. Plutchik (1980) devised a model to discuss how primary emotions BLEND into secondary emotions (awe)Plutchik (1980) devised a model to discuss how primary emotions BLEND into secondary emotions (awe)