1. Subordination & Content clauses
Chapter 10
Subordination
&
Content clauses

2. Subordinate clauses P:147
Subordinate clauses characteristically function as dependent within some larger construction.
The next higher clause in the structure is called the matrix clause.
Subordinate clauses often differ in their internal structure from main clauses.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
1.b. I agree that Sue is the best candidate.
1.a. Sue is the best candidate.
The underlined clause in [1b] , a dependent in clause structure, is marked as subordinate by its introductory word that, which is a subordinator.
2.b. This is the book he was looking at.
2.a. He was looking at a book.
The underlined clause in [2b] , a dependent in NP structure, is marked as subordinate by having a missing NP, the understood object of the preposition at.
3.b. I made a mistake in giving him my address.
3.a. I gave him my address.
The underlined clause in [3b] , a dependent in pp structure, is marked as subordinate by having its subject left understood and its verb in gerund-participle form.

3. Content clause as the default kind of finite subordinate clause P:174-175
There are three major subclasses of finite subordinate clause, illustrated in the following:
RELATIVE CLAUSE  They weren't among the people who had been invited.
The relative clause underlined in had as its subject a relative pronoun who with the preceding noun people as its antecedent.
COMPARATIVE CLAUSE  More people came than had been invited.
The comparative clause underlined has no overt subject at all.
CONTENT CLAUSE  I don't think that these people had been invited.
We can regard content clauses as the default kind of finite subordinate clause, from which relative and comparative clauses differ in certain distinctive ways.
The content clause is introduced by the subordinator that, but the rest of the clause does not differ from that of the main clause These people had been invited.
The subordinator is in fact optional here: I don 't think these people had been invited is also grammatical.
Content clauses function predominantly as complement within the larger construction: the one cited here, for example, is complement of the verb think.

4. 2 Clause type in content clauses P:175
The system of clause type described for main clauses in Ch.9 applies also to content clauses, except that imperatives are normally restricted to main clauses.
In the following examples, we illustrate main clause and content clauses of the other four types:
CONTENT CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
CLAUSE TYPE
He says that Liz is in Paris.
Liz is in Paris.
DECLARATIVE
I wonder whether she is ill.
Is she ill?
CLOSED INTERROGATIVE
Tell me what you want.
What do you want?
OPEN INTERROGATIVE
Tell her what a bargain it is.
What a bargain it is!
EXCLAMATIVE

5. 3. Declarative content clauses P:175
3.1 The subordinator that
The major feature that can distinguish declarative content clauses from their main clause counterparts is the subordinator that. It is sometimes obligatory, sometimes optional, and sometimes inadmissible:
WITH SUBORDINATOR that WITHOUT SUBORDINATOR that
OBLIGATORY a. That I need help is clear b. * I need help is clear.
INADMISSIBLE a. * I left before that he arrived b. I left before he arrived.
OPTIONAL a. I know that it 's genuine b. I know it 's genuine.
The main place where that is obligatory is where the content clause is subject of the matrix clause as in [1.a] OR preceding the subject, as in “That I need help I can’t deny”.
That is inadmissible in a clause that is complement to a preposition like before in [2].
Most prepositions exclude that; there are only a very few (such as notwithstanding, in order, and provided), which allow it.
Elsewhere, that is in general optional, as we see in [3]. It is more likely to be omitted in informal style, and it is more likely to be omitted after short and common verbs. For example, in “This will demonstrate that it is genuine” the subordinator would probably not be omitted.

6. 4 Interrogative content clauses P:177-178
Main clause interrogatives are characteristically used to  ASK questions.
Subordinate interrogatives are used to  EXPRESS questions, but do not themselves ask them.
Usually (but not always) the construction can be glossed with the formula "the answer to the question":
MAIN CLAUSE SUBORDINATE INTERROGATIVE CLAUSE
Where is he?  I know where he is.
"I know the answer to the question 'Where is he?‘ “
What was it?  I told her what it was.
"I told her the answer to the question 'What was it?' “
The two types are:
4. 1 Closed interrogatives and the subordinators whether and if
4.2 Open interrogatives

7. 4.1 Closed interrogatives and the subordinators whether and if P: 178
Whereas main clause closed interrogatives are marked by subject-auxiliary inversion,
their subordinate counterparts are normally introduced by one of the interrogative subordinators whether and if, followed by basic order of the subject and the predicate:
MAIN (subject-auxiliary inversion) SUBORDINATE (Basic order + whether OR if)
1.a. Did he accept the offer? b. I'm unsure whether he accepted the offer.
2.a. Will you come the party? b. He asked me if I'd come the party.
Note that the inversion in [1.a] requires the insertion of the dummy auxiliary do, but since there is no inversion in the subordinate version [1.b] , no do appears here.

8. 4.2 Open interrogatives P: 178
Open interrogatives, main and subordinate, are marked by the presence of an interrogative phrase containing one of the interrogative words such as:
who, what, which, why, when…etc.
In main clauses the interrogative phrase usually occupies initial position, and, if it is not subject, there will be subject-auxiliary inversion.
In subordinate clauses, the interrogative phrase is initial and there is normally no inversion:
MAIN SUBORDINATE
1.a. Which candidate spoke first? b. b. I can't say which candidate spoke first.
2.a. Why did she resign ? b. It 's obvious why she resigned.
So, both have interrogative words in initial positions.
Main clauses  the is subject-auxiliary inversion.
Subordinate clauses  There is NO subject-auxiliary inversion.

9. 5. Exclamative content clauses P:180
Exclamative clauses, main or subordinate, are marked by an
initial exclamative phrase containing how or what.
In main exclamative clauses, subject-auxiliary inversion is PERMITTED if the exclamative phrase is in non-subject function, but it is rare.
In subordinate exclamative clauses, subject-auxiliary inversion is
NOT PERMITTED.
For the most part, there is no internal difference between subordinate and main exclamatives. Compare:
MAIN SUBORDINATE
1.a. How very kind you are! b. I told them how very kind you are.
1.a. What a mess it was! b. I remember what a mess it was.