1. PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook The University of West Alabama © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. 15–2 Individual Contributions Understanding Individuals in Organizations The Psychological ContractThe Psychological Contract  The overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return. The Psychological Contract Organizational Inducements

3. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–3 15.1 The Psychological Contract

4. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–4 Understanding Individuals in Organizations (cont’d) The Person-Job FitThe Person-Job Fit  Reasons for poor person-job fit:  Imperfect organizational selection procedures  Change in both people and organizations over time.  New technologies require new employee skills  Unique individuals and unique jobs Individual DifferencesIndividual Differences  Personal attributes that vary from one person to another.  Physical, psychological, or emotional.

5. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–5 Personality and Individual Behavior PersonalityPersonality  The relatively stable set of psychological and behavioral attributes that distinguish individuals. Agreeableness Conscientiousness Extroversion Openness Negative Emotionality The “Big Five” Personality Traits

6. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–6 15.2 The “Big Five” Model of Personality High agreeablenessLow agreeableness Agreeableness High conscientiousnessLow conscientiousness Conscientiousness Less negative emotionalityMore negative emotionality Negative Emotionality More extraversionMore introversion Extraversion More opennessLess openness Openness

7. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–7 The Myers-Briggs Framework The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)  A popular questionnaire that some organizations use to assess personality types.  Is a useful method for determining communication styles and interaction preferences.  Has questionable validity and reliability. Personality TypesPersonality Types  Extraversion (E) versus Introversion (I)  Sensing (S) versus Intuition (N)  Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F)  Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P)

8. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–8 Other Personality Traits at Work (cont’d) Machiavellianism Self-Esteem Risk Propensity Personality Traits at Work Locus of Control Self-Efficacy Authoritarianism

9. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–9 Other Personality Traits at Work Locus of ControlLocus of Control  The extent to which people believe that their behavior has a real effect on what happens to them.  Internal locus of control—individuals who believe they are in control of their lives.  External locus of control—individuals believe that external forces dictate what happen to them. Self-EfficacySelf-Efficacy  A person’s belief about his or her capabilities to perform a task. High self-efficacy individuals believe they can perform well while low self-efficacy individuals doubt their ability to perform.

10. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–10 Other Personality Traits at Work (cont’d) AuthoritarianismAuthoritarianism  The extent to which an individual believes that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social organizations. MachiavellianismMachiavellianism  Behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others.

11. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–11 Other Personality Traits at Work (cont’d) Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem  The extent to which a person believes she/he is a worthwhile individual. Risk PropensityRisk Propensity  The degree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make risky decisions.

12. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–12 Emotional Intelligence Emotional Intelligence (EQ)Emotional Intelligence (EQ)  The extent to which people are self-aware, can manage their emotions, can motivate themselves, express empathy for others, and possess social skills. Self-awareness Managing Emotions Empathy Social skills Motivating oneself Dimensions of EQ

13. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–13 Attitudes and Individual Behavior AttitudesAttitudes  Complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations, or other people. Affective Component Cognitive Component Intentional Component Attitudinal Components

14. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–14 Attitudes and Individual Behavior (cont’d) Cognitive DissonanceCognitive Dissonance  The conflict individuals experience among their own attitudes.  The affective and cognitive components of the individual’s attitude are in conflict with intended behavior.

15. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–15 Work-Related Attitudes Job Satisfaction or DissatisfactionJob Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction  An attitude that reflects the extent to which an individual is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work. Job Satisfaction and Work BehaviorsJob Satisfaction and Work Behaviors  Job satisfaction is influenced by personal, group, and organizational factors.  Satisfied employees are absent less often, make positive contributions, and stay with the organization.  Dissatisfied employees are absent more often, may experience stress which disrupts coworkers, and may be continually looking for another job.  High levels of job satisfaction do not necessarily lead to high job performance.

16. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–16 Work-Related Attitudes (cont’d) Organizational CommitmentOrganizational Commitment  An attitude that reflects an individual’s identification with and attachment to an organization. Commitment and Work BehaviorsCommitment and Work Behaviors  Employee commitment strengthens with an individual’s age, years with the organization, sense of job security, and participation in decision making.  Committed employees have highly reliable habits, plan a longer tenure with the organization, and muster more effort in performance.

17. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–17 Affect and Mood in Organizations Positive AffectivityPositive Affectivity  A tendency to be relatively upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, see things in a positive light, and seem to be in a good mood. Negative AffectivityNegative Affectivity  A tendency to be generally downbeat and pessimistic, tend to see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood.

18. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–18 Perception and Individual Behavior PerceptionPerception  The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information. Selective PerceptionSelective Perception  The process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs.  If selective perception causes someone to ignore important information it can become quite detrimental.

19. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–19 15.3 Perceptual Processes

20. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–20 Perception and Individual Behavior (cont’d) StereotypingStereotyping  Is the process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute (e.g., gender and race).  May cost the organization valuable talent, violate federal anti-bias laws, and is likely unethical.

21. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–21 Perception and Attribution AttributionAttribution  A mechanism through which we observe behavior and attribute a cause to it. The Framework for Attributions:The Framework for Attributions: Consistency Attribution DistinctivenessConsensus

22. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–22 Stress and Individual Behavior StressStress  A person’s response to a strong stimulus (i.e., a stressor). General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)  The general cycle of the stress process.  Stage 1 Alarm  Stage 2 Resistance  Stage 3 Exhaustion

23. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–23 15.4 The General Adaptation Syndrome Stage 1 Alarm Stage 3 Exhaustion Stage 2 Resistance Stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome Normal level of resistance Response to stressful event

24. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–24 Personality Types Type A PersonalityType A Personality  Extremely competitive (aggressive), devoted to work, have a strong sense of time urgency (impatient).  Have a lot of drive and want to accomplish as much as possible as quickly as possible. Type B PersonalityType B Personality  Less competitive, less devoted to work, have a weaker sense of time urgency.  Less likely to experience personal stress or to come into conflict with other people.  More likely to have balanced, relaxed approach to life.

25. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–25 15.5 Causes of Work Stress Interpersonal Demands Group pressures Leadership styles Conflicting personalities Task Demands Quick decisions Critical decisions Incomplete informa- tion for decisions Physical Demands Temperature extremes Poorly designed office Threats to health Role Demands Role ambiguity Role conflict Organizational Stressors

26. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–26 Consequences of Stress Negative Personal ConsequencesNegative Personal Consequences  Behavioral  Psychological  Medical Negative Work-related ConsequencesNegative Work-related Consequences  Poor quality work output and lower productivity.  Job dissatisfaction, low morale, and a lack of commitment.  Withdrawal through indifference and absenteeism. BurnoutBurnout  A feeling of exhaustion that may develop when someone experiences too much stress for an extended period of time.

27. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–27 Managing Stress Regular Exercise Relaxation Time Management Support Groups Stress Management Strategies for Individuals

28. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–28 Managing Stress (cont’d) Stress Management Strategies in OrganizationsStress Management Strategies in Organizations  Organizations are partly responsible for stress.  Organizations also must bear the costs of stress- related claims.  Organizational wellness/stress management programs can be used to promote healthful employee activities and derive the benefits of increased organizational productivity.

29. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–29 Creativity in Organizations CreativityCreativity  The ability of an individual to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives in existing ideas. The Creative IndividualThe Creative Individual  Background experiences and creativity  Many creative individuals were reared in creative environments.  Personal traits and creativity  Creative persons have personal traits of openness, an attraction to complexity, high levels of energy, independence, autonomy, strong self-confidence, and a strong belief in their own creativity.

30. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–30 Creativity in Organizations (cont’d) The Creative IndividualThe Creative Individual  Cognitive abilities and creativity  Most creative people are highly intelligent.  They are both divergent and convergent thinkers, a skill they use to see differences and similarities in situations, phenomena, and events.

31. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–31 The Creative Process Preparation Incubation Insight Verification

32. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–32 The Creative Process PreparationPreparation  Formal education and training is used to “get up to speed.”  Experiences on the job provide additional knowledge and ideas. IncubationIncubation  A period of less intense conscious concentration during which knowledge and ideas acquired, during reparation, mature and develop.  Incubation is helped by pauses in rational thought.

33. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–33 The Creative Process (cont’d) InsightInsight  A spontaneous breakthrough in which the creative person achieves a new understanding of some problem or situation.  Patterns of thought coalesce into a new understanding. VerificationVerification  Determines the validity or truthfulness of the insight.  Tests are conducted and prototypes are built to see if the insight leads to the expected results.

34. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–34 The Creative Process (cont’d) Enhancing Creativity in OrganizationsEnhancing Creativity in Organizations  Make creativity part of the organization’s culture.  Set goals for revenues from creative products and services.  Reward creativity; refrain from punishing creative failures.  Some ideas work out as expected, others don’t work out as intended.

35. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–35 Workplace Behaviors Performance Behaviors Organizational Citizenship Withdrawal Behaviors Types of Workplace Behaviors

36. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–36 Types of Workplace Behavior Workplace BehaviorWorkplace Behavior  A pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness. Performance BehaviorsPerformance Behaviors  The total set of work-related behaviors an organization expects an individual to display.

37. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–37 Types of Workplace Behavior (cont’d) Withdrawal BehaviorsWithdrawal Behaviors  Absenteeism occurs when an individual does not show up for work when expected for legitimate or feigned reasons.  Absenteeism may be a symptom of other work- related problems.  Turnover occurs when individuals quit their jobs for work-related or personal reasons.

38. © 2010 South-Western, Cengage Learning, Inc. All rights reserved.15–38 Types of Workplace Behavior (cont’d) Organizational CitizenshipOrganizational Citizenship  The behavior of individuals that makes a positive overall contribution to the organization. Social context of the workplace (work group) Determinants of Organizational Citizenship Organization’s capability to reward citizenship Individual’s personality, attitudes, and needs