1. THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

2. Liberation from Mongols Pre-1500, the history of Russians was dominated by steppe nomads – Golden Horde (Mongols) ruled Russians & neighbors from 1240s-1480 – Moscow became most important Russian city Princes of Muscovy led movement against golden Horde & annexed territories of Novgorod in 1478 Muscovy princes made themselves masters of all Golden Horde territories & then a greater empire – Ivan IV (r.1533-1584) pushed conquests south & east into Khanates of Kazan & Astrakhan – Russians ruled largest state in Europe & largest territories on Asian side of Ural Mountains as well by end of 16 th century Rulers took title tsar after 1547 Russian church promoted idea of Moscow as the third Rome, successor to Constantinople which fell to Ottoman Turks in 1453

3. Russian Problems ~1600 Poor, backward landlocked empire Only one seaport connected to world’s oceans Crimean Turks sacked Moscow 1571 No warm water port = limited trade – Ottoman Empire controlled access to Black Seea – Safavid rulers dominated trade of southern Central Asia – Sweden & Poland-Lithuania blocked access to Baltic Sea Route to expansion = Siberia – Valuable animal pelts – Strogonov family led early Russian exploration of Siberia – Used rifles to destroy Khanate of Sibir in 1582 – Crossed into Alaska in 1600s – Siberia used as a penal colony for criminals & political prisoners

4. Society & Politics to 1725 Expansion involved demographic changes & new relations between tsar and elites Empire incorporated people with different languages, religions, and ethnic identities – Efforts by Orthodox missionaries to Christianize peoples of Siberia – Russians tended to live as farmers, builders, hunters, scribes, or merchants, but new peoples were herders, caravan workers, or soldiers – Individual & group identities became complex Cossacks – lived in steppes between Moscovy & Capisan sea; terrified villages & authorities; provided most soldiers & settlers employed by Strogonovs; founded towns in Siberia Cultural groups defined less by blood ties than by ways in which they lived Swedish & Polish forces briefly occupied Moscow in early 17 th century (“Time of Troubles”) – Marked end of old line of Muscovite Rulers – Boyars – aristocrats – promoted Mikhail Romanov to inaugurate a new dynasty Represented conflicts between Slavic Russians & Turkic steppe peoples

5. Serfs Freedom of peasants who tilled land in Russia fell Muscovy rulers rewarded nobles with grants of lands that obliged peasants to work for lords Law & custom permitted peasants to change masters during a 2-week period each year, encouraging lords to treat peasants well – But, rising commercialization of agriculture raised value of labor obligations Long periods of war disrupted life & caused many to flee to the Cossacks or across Ural Mountains – Sold themselves into slavery to avoid starvation Law change in 1649 finally transformed peasants into serfs by eliminating period when they could change masters & ordering runaways returned Hereditary status Comprised over half the population by 1795 – Landowners only 2% – Similar to the Caribbean

6. The Romanovs Ruled from 1613 to March 15, 1917 with abdication of Nicholas II – Direct male line had already ended with Peter II in 1730 – Mikhail  Alexei  Dynastic struggle – Peter the Great 1682-1725 – Empress Catherine (wife)  Peter II died 1730 Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov Line Notables – Catherine the Great r.1762-1796 “Golden Age” & supported Peter the Great’s modernization efforts – Paul I – Catherine’s son; murdered in his palace in St Petersburg in 1801 – Alexander I – succeeded Paul, but left no heir – Nicholas I – succeeded Alexander I (brothers) after major competition with other brother Constantine – Alexander II (1855-1881) – Crimean War + freed serfs in 1861; assassinated by hand-made bomb in 1881 – Alexander III – conservative reforms; strengthened autocratic rule – Nicholas II (1894-1917) assassinated by Bolsheviks

7. Peter the Great, r.1689-1725 Greatest of the Romanovs Reduced Russian isolation Increased empire’s size & power Implemented Western reforms – “westernization” or “modernization” to compete with Europe & be considered part of Europe – Studied in Europe + had military officers trained there – No beards – Western dress – Required officials, military officers, & merchants to bring wives to social gatherings to end seclusion of upper-class women – Promoted education of officials’ children – Reduced traditional roles of boyars in government – Promoted officers in military based on merit – Brought Russian Orthodox Church under his control – Built factories and iron & copper foundries Commissioned construction of warm-water port: St. Petersburg – Seized land along Baltic Sea in the Great Northern War v. Sweden 1770-1721 – Became the capital in 1712 – ‘Window to the West’ – Built in baroque style fashionable in France The not-so-good – Absolute ruler (but of same sort as in Western Europe at the time) – Increased burdens of taxes & forced labor on serfs