Environmental Influences on Behavior Module 6

Environmental Influences on Behavior Module 6
Online link Environmental Influences on Behavior Module 6 Module Module Module

Environment and Behavior
What about the environment? How do our early experiences, our family, our community and our culture affect these differences? Preview Question 4: To what extent are our lives shaped by parental nurture, early stimulation, and peer influences? Module Module Module

Experience and Brain Development
Early postnatal experiences affect brain development. After 60 days enriched rat brain weight increases 7-10% Synapses increase by 20% You can even tell by watching videos of rats Rosenzweig et al. (1984) showed that rats raised in enriched environments developed thicker cortices than those in impoverished environment. Module Module Module

Experience and Faculties
Early experiences during development in humans show remarkable improvements in music, languages and the arts. (Field) Handheld rats and humans develop faster Unused brain cells pruned Musicians larger brain areas devoted to music, larger and more complex networks for left hand Courtesy of C. Brune Module Module Module

Brain Development and Adulthood
Brain development does not stop when we reach adulthood. Throughout our life, brain tissue continues to grow and change. Practice makes perfect Elbert found that string musicians before 12 had more complex neural circuits for note making l-hand than those who started later A well-learned finger-tapping task leads to more motor cortical neurons (right) than baseline. Both hotos courtesy of Avi Kani and Leslie Ungerleider, National Institue of Mental Health Module Module Module

How Much Credit (or Blame) Do Parents Deserve?
Parental influence is largely genetic. This support is essential in nurturing children. However, other socializing factors also play an important role. Political, religious, manners most affected by parents Parenting accounts for less than 10% of differences between children Siblings as different on average as randomly selected kids Power of parenting clearest at extremes…abused and successful Miquel L. Fairbanks Although raised in the same family, some children are greater risk takers. Module Module Module

Peer Influence Children, like adults, attempt to fit into a group by conforming. Peers are influential in such areas as learning to cooperate with others, gaining popularity, and developing interactions. Kids will eat food they don’t like w/kids who like it Kids adopt accent of their peers Smoking teens more likely to have friends that smoke than parents that smoke Ole Graf/ zefa/ Corbis Module Module Module

Environmental Influence
Culture the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next Norm an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior Preview Question 5: How do cultural norms affect our behavior? 9 50. Which of the following regularities in behavior can most likely be accounted for by the existence of a group norm? (AP99) (A) Students tend to use less profanity with adults than they do with their peers. (B) Most people sleep at least six hours a night. (C) The average annual income of industrial workers in 1972 was $7,250. (D) Male infants have a higher infant mortality rate than female infants. (E) People perform well-learned behaviors better in the presence of others than when alone. Module Module Module

Variation Across Culture
Cultures differ. Each culture develops norms – rules for accepted and expected behavior. Men holding hands in Saudi Arabia is the norm (closer personal space), but not in American culture. Personal Space the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies Jason Reed/ Reuters/Corbis Module Module Module

Variation Over Time Cultures change over time. The rate of this change may be extremely fast. In many Western countries, culture has rapidly changed over the past 40 years or so. This change cannot be attributed to changes in the human gene pool because genes evolve very slowly. Module Module Module

Culture and the Self If a culture nurtures an individual’s personal identity, it is said to be individualist. If a group identity is favored then the culture is described as collectivist. Preview Question 6: How does the view of self differ in individualist and collectivist cultures? Western cultures individualist Non-western collectivist, avoid confrontation, duty to family, social harmony A collectivist support system can benefit groups who experience disasters such as the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan. Kyodo News Module Module Module

Culture and Child-Rearing
Individualist cultures (European) raise their children as independent individuals whereas collectivist cultures (Asian/African) raise their children as interdependent. Collectivist cultures shyer Collectivist strong sense of family-self Jose Luis Palaez, Inc./ Corbis Module Module Module

Individualist/Collectivist
Westernized Cultures Asian-African Cultures Responsible for your self Responsible to group Follow your conscience Priority to obedience Discover your gifts Be true to family-self Be true to yourself Be loyal to your group Be independent Be interdependent Module Module Module

Developmental Similarities Across Groups
Despite diverse cultural backgrounds, humans are more similar than different in many ways. We share the same genetic profile, life cycle, capacity for language, and biological needs. Slide example of social trust Scotland Orkney islands town of stromness Copyright Steve Reehl Module Module Module

Gender Development Based on genetic makeup, males and females are alike, since the majority of our inherited genes (45 chromosomes are unisex) are similar. Preview Question 7: How do nature and nurture interact to define us as male or female? Compared to men the avg. woman has 70% more fat, 40% less muscle, 5 inches shorter Doubly vulnerable to depression and 10x more likely to have eating disorders. Women reach puberty 2 yrs earlier than men Men 4x more likely to suicide or alcoholism more likely to be autistic, color blind, hyperactive or have anti-social personality Males and females differ biologically in body fat, muscle, height, onset of puberty, and life expectancy. Module Module Module

Gender Differences in Aggression
Men express themselves and behave in more aggressive ways than do women. This aggression gender gap appears in many cultures and at various ages. Deliver more painful shocks (Betencouirt 1987) More physical aggression across cultures Arrest rate for murder 9/1 male to female 2005 Survey on war in Iraq 51% men, 34% women In males, the nature of this aggression is physical. Module Module Module

Gender and Social Power
In most societies, men are socially dominant and are perceived as such. Men more autocratic Men more likely to offer opinions Women more likely to express support In 2005, men accounted for 84% of the governing parliaments. Module Module Module

Gender Differences and Connectedness
Young and old, women form more connections (friendships) with people than do men. Men emphasize freedom and self-reliance. Oliver Eltinger/ Zefa/ Corbis Dex Image/ Getty Images Module Module Module

The Nature and Nurture of Gender
X Chromosome the sex chromosome found in both men and women females have two; males have one an X chromosome from each parent produces a female child Y Chromosome the sex chromosome found only in men when paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child Father “decides” sex of child Androgen insensitivity syndrome Testicular feminization Last reviewed: August 31, 2010. Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) is when a person who is genetically male (has one X and one Y chromosome) is resistant to male hormones called androgens. As a result, the person has some or all of the physical characteristics of a woman, despite having the genetic makeup of a man. Causes, incidence, and risk factors Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) is caused by various genetic defects on the X chromosome that make the body unable to respond to the hormones responsible for the male appearance. The syndrome is divided into two main categories: Complete AIS Incomplete AIS Complete androgen insensitivity prevents the development of the penis and other male body parts. The child born appears to be a girl. The complete form of the syndrome occurs in as many as 1 in 20,000 live births. The degree of sexual ambiguity varies widely in persons with incomplete AIS. Incomplete AIS can include other disorders such as Reifenstein syndrome (also known as Gilbert-Dreyfus syndrome or Lubs syndrome), which is associated with breast development in men, failure of one or both testes to descend into the scrotum after birth, and hypospadias, a condition where the opening of the urethra is on the underside, rather than at the tip, of the penis. Also included in the broad category of incomplete AIS is infertile male syndrome, which is sometimes due to an androgen receptor disorder. Symptoms A person with complete AIS appears to be female but has no uterus, and has very little armpit and pubic hair. At puberty, female secondary sex characteristics (such as breasts) develop, but menstruation and fertility do not. Persons with incomplete AIS may have both male and female physical characteristics. Many have partial closing of the outer vaginal lips, an enlarged clitoris, and a short vagina. There may be: A vagina but no cervix or uterus Inguinal hernia with a testis that can be felt during a physical exam Normal female breast development Testes in the abdomen or other unusual places in the body Signs and tests Complete AIS is rarely discovered during childhood, unless a mass is felt in the abdomen or groin that turns out to be a testicle when it is explored surgically. Most people with this condition are not diagnosed until they fail to menstruate or have difficulties becoming pregnant. Incomplete AIS, however, is often discovered during childhood because the person may have both male and female physical characteristics. Tests used to diagnose this condition may include: Blood work to check levels of testosterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Genetic testing (karyotyping) Pelvic ultrasound Other blood tests may be done to help tell the difference between AIS and androgen deficiency. Treatment Unusually located testicular tissue may not be removed until a child completes puberty and growth is complete. At this time, the testis may be removed because they can develop cancer like any undescended testicle. Estrogen replacement is prescribed after puberty. Treatment and gender assignment can be a very complex issue, and must be individualized with great care. Expectations (prognosis) The outlook for complete AIS is good if at-risk testicular tissue is removed at the proper time. The outlook for incomplete AIS depends on the presence and severity of ambiguous genitalia. Complications Complications include testicular cancer, infertility, and complex psychosocial issues. Calling your health care provider Call your health care provider if you or your child have signs or symptoms of the syndrome. References Wysolmerski JJ. Insogna KL. The parathyroid glands, hypercalcemia, and hypocalcemia. In: Kronenberg HM, Schlomo M, Polansky KS, Larsen PR, eds. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 11th ed. St. Louis, Mo: WB Saunders; 2008:chap 266. Bringhurst FR, Demay MB, Kronenberg HM. Disorders of mineral metabolism. In: Kronenberg HM, Schlomo M, Polansky KS, Larsen PR, eds. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 11th ed. St. Louis, Mo: WB Saunders; 2008:chap 27. Review Date: 8/31/2010. Reviewed by: Ari S. Eckman, MD, Chief, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Trinitas Regional Medical Center, Elizabeth, NJ. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc. Module Module Module

Biological sex is determined by the twenty-third pair of chromosomes.
Biology of Sex Biological sex is determined by the twenty-third pair of chromosomes. If the pair is XX, a female is produced. If the pair is XY, a male child is produced. Disorders of Sex Differentiation - A General Outline Sex differentiation is a complex physiological process comprised of many steps. Problems associated with sex differentiation, or syndromes of intersexuality, occur when errors in development take place at any of these steps. Genetic Sex Problems can arise at fertilization when chromosomal sex is established. For example, girls with Turner Syndrome have a 45,XO karyotype and boys with Klinefelter Syndrome have a 47,XXY karyotype. It is also known that some women have a 46,XY or 47,XXX karyotype and some men a 46,XX or 47,XYY karyotype. Clearly then, when it is stated that 46,XY refers to male sex and 46,XX refers to female sex, this is a generalization which applies to most, but not all, individuals. Gonadal Sex Disorders of sex differentiation can occur when a bipotential gonad is incapable of developing into a testis or an ovary. The inability to develop testes may occur if a gene such as SRY is absent or deficient. When this is the case, a 46,XY fetus will not receive the SRY signal to develop testes despite the presence of a Y chromosome. Additionally, 46,XY fetuses may begin to develop testes, but this development can be thwarted, and subsequently MIS and androgen production may be absent or diminished. Finally, the normal disappearance of germ cells associated with ovarian development in fetuses is so accelerated in Turner Syndrome that by birth these babies possess gonadal streaks as opposed to normal ovaries. Mullerian and Wolffian Duct Development Intersexuality can also result as a consequence of problems related to Mullerian or Wolffian duct development. For example, MIS secretion accompanied by the absence of androgens or the inability to respond to androgens can result in a fetus lacking both male and female internal duct structures. In contrast, the absence of MIS accompanied by androgen secretion can result in a fetus possessing both male and female internal duct structures to varying degrees. External Genitalia Babies born with sex differentiation syndromes possess external genitalia that can usually be classified as either: normal female ambiguous normal male but with a very small penis (micropenis) Normal female external genitalia develop among 46,XY intersex patients when the genital tubercle, genital swellings, and genital folds either completely lack exposure to, or are totally incapable of responding to, male hormones. As a result, masculinization of the external genital structures is not possible. In such cases, the genital tubercle develops into a clitoris, the genital swellings develop into the labia majora and the genital folds develop into the labia minora. Ambiguous external genitalia develop in female patients when the external genital structures are exposed to greater-than-normal amounts of male hormones (masculinized females) or in male patients when less-than-normal amounts of male hormones (under-masculinized males) occurs. Thus, in these patients, external genitalia develop in a manner that is neither female nor male, but rather is somewhere in between the two. For instance, patients with ambiguous external genitalia may possess a phallus which ranges in size from resembling a large clitoris to a small penis. Additionally, these patients may possess a structure that resembles partially fused labia or a split scrotum. Finally, patients with ambiguous external genitalia often possess a urethral (urinary) opening that is not at the tip of the phallus (normal male position), but is instead located elsewhere on the phallus or perineum. The atypical positioning of the urethra in such instances is referred to as hypospadius. Babies born with a penis that is much smaller than normal (micropenis) have a completely normal appearing external genitalia (i.e)., the urethra is properly located at the tip of the phallus and the scrotum is completely fused). However, the size of the phallus is closer to that of a normal clitoris than a normal penis. Module Module Module

Sex linked disorders Klinefelter's syndrome, 47, XXY, or XXY syndrome is a condition in which human males have an extra X chromosome. Because of the extra chromosome, individuals with the condition are usually referred to as "XXY Males", or "47, XXY Males".[2] In humans, Klinefelter's syndrome is the most common sex chromosome disorder[3] and the second most common condition caused by the presence of extra chromosomes. The condition exists in roughly 1 out of every 1,000 males. One in every 500 males has an extra X chromosome but does not have the syndrome.[4] Other mammals also have the XXY syndrome, including mice.[5] The principal effects are development of small testicles and reduced fertility. Turner syndrome or Ullrich-Turner syndrome (also known as "Gonadal dysgenesis"[1]:550) encompasses several conditions, of which monosomy X (absence of an entire sex chromosome, the Barr body) is most common. It is a chromosomal abnormality in which all or part of one of the sex chromosomes is absent (unaffected humans have 46 chromosomes, of which two are sex chromosomes). Typical females have two X chromosomes, but in Turner syndrome, one of those sex chromosomes is missing or has other abnormalities. In some cases, the chromosome is missing in some cells but not others, a condition referred to as mosaicism[2] or 'Turner mosaicism'. Occurring in 1 out of every 2500 girls, the syndrome manifests itself in a number of ways. There are characteristic physical abnormalities, such as short stature, swelling, broad chest, low hairline, low-set ears, and webbed necks.[3] Girls with Turner syndrome typically experience gonadal dysfunction (non-working ovaries), which results in amenorrhea (absence of menstrual cycle) and sterility. Concurrent health concerns are also frequently present, including congenital heart disease, hypothyroidism (reduced hormone secretion by the thyroid), diabetes, vision problems, hearing concerns, and many autoimmune diseases.[4] Finally, a specific pattern of cognitive deficits is often observed, with particular difficulties in visuospatial, mathematical, and memory areas.[5] Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe recessive X-linked form of muscular dystrophy characterized by rapid progression of muscle degeneration, eventually leading to loss of ambulation and death. This affliction affects one in 3500 males, making it the most prevalent of muscular dystrophies. In general, only males are afflicted, though females can be carriers. Females may be afflicted if the father is afflicted and the mother is also a carrier/ affected. The disorder is caused by a mutation in the dystrophin gene, located in humans on the X chromosome (Xp21). The dystrophin gene codes for the protein dystrophin, an important structural component within muscle tissue. Dystrophin provides structural stability to the dystroglycan complex (DGC), located on the cell membrane. Symptoms usually appear in male children before age 5 and may be visible in early infancy. Progressive proximal muscle weakness of the legs and pelvis associated with a loss of muscle mass is observed first. Eventually this weakness spreads to the arms, neck, and other areas. Early signs may include pseudohypertrophy (enlargement of calf and deltoid muscles), low endurance, and difficulties in standing unaided or inability to ascend staircases. As the condition progresses, muscle tissue experiences wasting and is eventually replaced by fat and fibrotic tissue (fibrosis). By age 10, braces may be required to aid in walking but most patients are wheelchair dependent by age 12. Module Module Module

Klinefelter's syndrome Anemia, hereditary sideroblastic
Turner syndrome triple X syndrome Klinefelter's syndrome Anemia, hereditary sideroblastic Anemia, sex-linked hypochromic sideroblastic ANH1 Ceramide trihexosidase deficiency Rett syndrome Lesch-Nyhan syndrome sideroblastic anemia Dihydrotestosterone receptor deficiency androgen insensitivity syndrome McLeod syndrome Genetic hypercalciuria Siderius X-linked mental retardation syndrome Alpha-galactosidase A deficiency Anderson-Fabry disease Angiokeratoma Corporis Diffusum Fabry disease fragile X syndrome Incontinentia pigmenti XYY syndrome Module Module Module

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Testosterone the most important of the male sex hormones both males and females have it additional testosterone in males stimulates growth of male sex organs in the fetus development of male sex characteristics during puberty Module Module Module

Sexual Differentiation
In the mother’s womb, the male fetus is exposed to testosterone (because of the Y chromosome), which leads to the development of male genitalia. At 7 wks embryos anatomically indistinguishable Males born without penises – androgenic insensitivity syndrome 14 sexual reassignments & raised as girls 6 later declared themselves males 3 unclear sexual identity 5 living as females Case of botched circumcision in the AP text If low levels of testosterone are released in the uterus, the result is a female. Module Module Module

Sexual Differentiation
Sexual differentiation is not only biological, but also psychological and social. However, genes and hormones play a very important role in defining gender, especially in altering the brain and influencing gender differences as a result. Module Module Module

Gender Roles Our culture shapes our gender roles — expectations of how men and women are supposed to behave. Roles vary widely Subject to cultural variation Gender Identity — means how a person views himself or herself in terms of gender. Module Module Module

Richard Scary book images Module Module Module

Gender and Culture Men work longer hours and less at home Women 71% more Child care 90% women in 2 parent families run the household Module Module Module

US college students Module Module Module

Gender Roles: Theories
Social Learning Theory proposes that we learn gender behavior like any other behavior—reinforcement, punishment, and observation. Gender Schema Theory suggests that we learn a cultural “recipe” of how to be a male or a female, which influences our gender- based perceptions and behaviors. SL Big boys don’t cry You are such a good mommy w/ your dolls When typing is discouraged kids organize themselves GS Young children are gender detectives Kids hunt for cues about gender Module Module Module

Gender Roles: Theories

EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (7th Edition in Modules) David Myers
PowerPoint Slides Aneeq Ahmad Henderson State University & James A. McCubbin, Ph.D. Clemson University W/Edits Worth Publishers, © 2008 Module Module Module

Environmental Influences on Behavior Module 6

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