1. Propositional Density - a new measure of oral fluency?
The role of small words and fillers in oral fluency
Giles Witton-Davies
Lancaster University & National Taiwan University

2. Propositional Density – a summary
The percentage of words devoted to the essential proposition of an utterance.
High propositional density (>90%) = most words devoted to the proposition
Low propositional density (<90%) = more words used to link, evaluate, react, or frame the proposition.
Propositional density correlates with fluency

3. Task Based Language Teaching
Focus on oral tasks in the classroom contributes to speaking fluency.
Key measures of fluency, accuracy and complexity in studies of task-based learning (Foster & Skehan 1999, Tavakoli and Skehan 2005).
1. What is fluency?
2. How can fluency be measured?
3. How can learners increase their fluency?

4. Fluency
....an impression on the listener’s part that the psycho- linguistic processes of speech planning and speech production are functioning easily and efficiently (Lennon 1990)‏.
...the rapid, smooth, accurate, lucid, and efficient translation of thought or communicative intention into language under the temporal constraints of on-line processing (Lennon 2000).‏
Temporal measures: AR (articulation rate), SR (speech rate), MLR (mean length of run), PTR (phonation time ratio), ratio of internal pauses, RR (repair rate).
The listener: Smooth? Lucid? Coherence and cohesion?

5. Formulaic sequences
Sinclair's (1991) idiom principle: certain combinations of words are favoured over other, equally grammatically correct combinations.
Pawley & Syder (1983): key role of formulaic expressions in native speaker fluency and idiomaticity.
Wray 2002: formulaic sequences are stored, retrieved and produced whole
Formulaic sequences require less attention on the part of the speaker, thus enhancing fluency.

6. Small words Hasselgreen’s (2004) definition:
small words and phrases, occurring with high frequency in the spoken language, that help to keep our speech flowing, yet do not contribute essentially to the message itself.

7. Small words
Hasselgreen 2004: smallwords (and, but, so, well) and their role in fluency. Small words:
1. ...aid fluent production, allowing the speaker time to plan, and replacing filled pauses.
2. ...make speech sound smooth and to the listener.
3. ...provide cues to facilitate ostensive /inferential communication (Sperber & Wilson 1995) and indicate the relevance of utterances.

8. Examples of smallwords from Hasselgreen (19 in total)‏
well
right
all right
okay
oh, ah
you know
I think
I mean
like
sort/ kind of
a bit
just
or something
not really
& everything/stuff/that
I know
you see
I see

9. Framing Bygate and Samuda (2005):
“Framing” language – any elaboration beyond the “bare bones” of a narrative.
More framing language when task repeated.
Task repetition allows for more elaboration and comment, and for greater cohesion.
Much of this framing involves complete clauses and gives new information.
Framing will still require the speaker's full attention

10. Non-propositional words
do not affect the ideational or propositional meaning of an utterance.
carry instead evaluative, interpersonal or textual meanings and functions.
may relate to the framing, ordering, and other linking between utterances and parts of utterances.
may relate to the speaker's evaluation of an utterance, or the speaker's reaction to a previous utterance.

11. Rationale for definition of non-propositional words
1. They can be used as fillers, allowing time for planning of the next words, clause or unit.
2. In their absence, speakers are likely to need to pause (with either silent or filled pauses).
3. They may allow the speaker to produce utterances accurately, with no need for repair.
4. They may enable the speaker to speak more rapidly.

12. Key tests for (non-) propositional words
1. They can be omitted with no change of propositional or ideational meaning
2. They can be omitted without creating a need to change the remaining utterance syntactically.
3. If they are removed, the utterance will still be complete.
4. They modify the whole clause or utterance rather than single words or phrases.

13. Examples of non-propositional or small words in this study
after
that
and
because
but
for example
I think (that)‏
just OK
maybe no
right so
still
then
too
well
yes, yeh

14. Propositional language
Whole speech units “I agree with you”, “Yes” /“No”
Repaired words playing no role in final utterance.
Non-nativelike use of words, e.g. “yeh” at end of clauses.
Non-words such as “oh” or “uhun”.
Words that cannot be omitted because they are grammatically and semantically necessary
Explicit reference to times, causes, contrast, interaction and evaluation .

15. The Data
17 Taiwanese university students at English Language and Literature Dept.
Year 1 first term and year 4 last term at university.
Students work in pairs on same narrative and discussion tasks.
Transcriptions made using AS units (Foster et al 2000), pauses of over 25 msecs measured to nearest 10 msec. using Transcriber software.

16. Analysis Non-propositional words marked in transcripts and counted.
Percentage calculated of non-propositional words as compared to total words.
Non-propositional words per unit/ per clause also tried.

17. Correlations with Propositional Density (1)‏
Prop. density
Pruned SR
-0.574 SR
Speech
-0.606
Pruned AR
-0.584 AR
Articulation
-0.529

18. Correlations with Propositional Density (2)‏
-0.349
-0.432
-0.360
-0.407
Proposit- ional density
PhTR
Pruned MLR
MLR (Mean length of run)‏
RR (Repair Rate)‏

19. Results Strong correlation with propositional density :
speech rate, articulation rate, pruned speech rate
Medium correlation with propositional density:
repair rate, mean length of run, phonation time ratio
Weak correlation with propositional density: percentage of internal pauses

20. Discussion Correlation ≠ causation
Speakers who use more non-propositional language (smallwords):
speak faster
produce longer runs
pause less often
pause for less time overall

21. Unresolved questions 1. Why do fluent speakers use more smallwords?
2. Why do less fluent speakers use fewer smallwords?
3. Do smallwords require any less attention than other words and phrases?
4. Can smallwords be used as a short-cut to fluency?

22. An idea
Chaining versus integration in speech (Pawley and Syder, 1983).
Chaining involves linking of clauses without subordinate clauses, integration links clauses grammatically through subordination.
Ejzenberger (2000): chaining associated with greater fluency, integration with reduced fluency in the speech of both high and low fluency EFL speakers.

23. Conclusions
There is a relationship between fluency and the amount of non-propositional language / the use of smallwords.
Non-propositional language MAY contribute to fluent production (on the part of the speaker) and to the perception of fluency (on the part of the listener).

24. References:
Bygate, M. and Samuda, V. (2005). Integrative planning through the use of task repetition. In Ellis, R. (ed.) Planning and task performance in a second language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp
Ejzenberg, R. (2000). The juggling act of oral fluency: A psycho- sociolinguistic metaphor. In: Riggenbach, H. (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency. The University of Michigan Press, Michigan, pp. 287–314.
Foster, P. (2001). Rules and routines: a consideration of their roles in task-based language production of native and non-native speakers. In Bygate, M., P. Skehan and M. Swain (Eds.) Researching Pedagogic tasks: second language learning and testing, Harlow: Longman, pp
Foster, P. and Tonkyn, A. and Wigglesworth, G. (2000). Measuring spoken language: a unit for all reasons. Applied Linguistics, 21/3:
Halliday, M. (2004). An introduction to functional grammar (3rd edition). London: Arnold.

25. Hasselgreen, A. (2004). Testing the spoken English of young Norwegians
Hasselgreen, A. (2004). Testing the spoken English of young Norwegians. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pawley, A. and Syder, F. (1983). “Two puzzles for linguistic theory: nativelike selection and nativelike fluency.” In J. Richards and R. Schmidt (Eds.) Language and communication (pp. 191—226). New York: Longman.
Sinclair, J. (1991). Corpus, Concordance, Collocation. London: Oxford: Oxford University Press. [Chapter 8]
Sperber, D. and Wilson. (1995). Relevance. Oxford: Blackwell.
Tavakoli, P. and Skehan, P. (2005). ‘Strategic planning, task structure, and performance testing.’ In R. Ellis (ed.) Planning and Task performance in a second language, Amsterdam: John Benjamin, pp
Wray, A. (2002). Formulaic Language and the Lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.