1. Qualitative Research 2
Dr Shona Bettany

2. Key issues Learning a little about methods…
Participant observation
Focus groups
In-depth Interviewing
Projective techniques
And a little about sampling…

3. 1) Participant observation
“Deep hanging out”
Type of engagement with the group varies
Relation to the group varies
Researcher is the research instrument
Observation or participant observation?
Presentation of self
Field notes, video, as ways of capturing observation

4. 2) Focus groups
A group discussion facilitated by a moderator to access memories, feelings and perceptions about a particular focused topic
Promotes self disclosure, debate and interesting interaction – the whole is more than the sum of the parts!
Seven to ten similar (related to the topic) “information rich” participants
Moderator keeps the discussion going, keeps everyone on track, makes sure everyone can participate
Provide a comfortable, permissive, non threatening environment
Three focus groups usually provide a good result
visual aids can be employed, TV, video, magazines, to stimulate discussion
Incentives can be used (pizza is a good one)
Data collection can be through tape recording, video, notes

5. Focus group examples
Are focus groups a good method to use for these questions and why?
(and what kinds of methodologies do these questions come from?)
Question 1
“Understanding the lived experience of becoming a first time mum after the age of 40”
Question 2
“Understanding the lived experience of alcoholism”
Question 3
“How are new university employees at Bradford University socialized into workplace rituals?”
Question 4
“What are the cultural characteristics of a highly innovative organization?”

6. 3) In depth interviewing
In-depth interviews - one person (but sometimes two) is interviewed at a time.  The format remains unstructured, the interview is generally conducted by a researcher, and projective techniques may also be used.
In-depth interviews explore the nuances of what people think, feel, and experience
Ideal for investigating personal, sensitive, or confidential information. 
This type of interview involves asking informants open-ended questions, and probing wherever necessary to obtain data deemed useful by the researcher
Can be used used to explore conceptual issues at an early stage in the development of a questionnaire or to complement quantitative research
Valuable for researching people with busy lifestyles who would be unlikely to attend a focus group - e.g. senior businesspeople - also somewhat easier to arrange!!
The disadvantage of in-depth interviews is that the respondent may be less willing to open up than in the relaxed atmosphere of a focus group.  A skilled interviewer can overcome this, through the establishment of rapport and trust

7. 3) In depth interviewing (2)
Three main types of IDI
Informal conversational
Guided
Standardised

8. 3) In depth interviewing (3)
Truly open-ended questions cannot be answered by yes or no, do not pre-determine the answers and allow room for the informants to respond in their own terms. For example, “tell me about the last time you went clothes shopping”, “tell me about typical work place relations at Bradford University”
Start with simple questions relating to experiences or actual behaviour or incidents rather than jumping straight into feelings, emotions etc.
Probing
Establish rapport

9. 4) Projective techniques
A technique to use in different research encounters (i.e. interviews or focus groups)
Based on the projective hypothesis
Stimulus an be a question, a fantasy, an incomplete sentence, a drawing/cartoon, an observed situation, a photograph, word association, a shared construction of a collage or simply “what do you think other people think about x?” (otherwise known as gossip!!)

10. Projective techniques (2)
The Zaltman metaphor elicitation technique (ZMAT)
Based on the idea that we think in pictures and metaphors
We need to get at those to understand what/how people are really experiencing phenomena

11. Projective techniques (3)
Thematic apperception test (TAT)
A drawing, picture or video of a particular situation is presented to the participant and they are encouraged to explain what they think is “happening” – “what is going on here?”
OR: Ask participants to draw a cartoon or line drawing of a particular situation
The data generated from the discussion can be analysed in several ways to generate themes and models, thick description, discourses and/or concepts

12. Sampling in qualitative research
We have already talked about this, can you remember?
Different sampling techniques can be used at different stages of the qual research project
Probability sampling is inappropriate for QUAL research – why?
Purposive sampling
Theoretical sampling

13. Fit within overall topic
Introduction to specific research methods
You need to know the pragmatics of methods to do any research
In qualitative research the onus is more on you as research instrument so even more important that you understand specific methods, where they came from, how they work and have worked through examples