4 The Tissue Level of Organization C h a p t e r

4 The Tissue Level of Organization C h a p t e r
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Jason LaPres Lone Star College - North Harris Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Four Types of Tissues Tissues are collections of cells and cell products that perform specific, limited functions Types of tissue Epithelial tissue Covers exposed surfaces Lines internal passageways Forms glands Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Four Types of Tissues Types of Tissue (cont’d) Connective tissue
Fills internal spaces Supports other tissues Transports materials Stores energy Muscle tissue Specialized for contraction Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and walls of hollow organs Neural tissue Carries electrical signals from one part of the body to another Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Epithelial Tissues Epithelia Glands
Layers of cells covering internal or external surfaces Glands Structures that produce secretions Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Epithelial Tissues Characteristics of Epithelia
Cellularity (cell junctions) Polarity (apical and basal surfaces) Attachment (basal lamina) Avascularity Regeneration Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Epithelial Tissues Figure 4–1 The Polarity of Epithelial Cells.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Epithelial Tissues Functions of Epithelial Tissue
Provide physical protection Control permeability Provide sensation Produce specialized secretions (glandular epithelium) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Epithelial Tissues Specializations of Epithelial Cells
Move fluids over the epithelium (protection) Move fluids through the epithelium (permeability) Produce secretions (protection and messengers) Free Surface and Attached Surface Polarity Apical surfaces: microvilli increase absorption or secretion cilia (ciliated epithelium) move fluid Basolateral surfaces Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Epithelial Tissues Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia
Intercellular connections Attachment to basal lamina Epithelial maintenance and repair Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Epithelial Tissues Intercellular Connections Support and communication
CAMs (cell adhesion molecules): transmembrane proteins Intercellular cement: proteoglycans Hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid): glycosaminoglycans Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Epithelial Tissues Intercellular Connections Cell junctions
Form bonds with other cells or extracellular material: occluding (tight) junctions gap junctions macula adherens (desmosomes) Intercellular Connections Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Epithelial Tissues Cell Junctions
Occluding (Tight) junctions—between two plasma membranes Adhesion belt attaches to terminal web Prevents passage of water and solutes Isolates wastes in the lumen Gap junctions—allow rapid communication Held together by channel proteins (junctional proteins, connexons) Allow ions to pass Coordinate contractions in heart muscle Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Epithelial Tissues Cell Junctions Macula adherens (Desmosomes)
CAMs, dense areas, and intercellular cement Spot desmosomes tie cells together allow bending and twisting Hemidesmosomes attach cells to the basal lamina Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Epithelial Tissues Attachment to the Basal Lamina
Clear layer (Lamina lucida) Thin layer Secreted by epithelia Barrier to proteins Dense layer (Lamina densa) Thick fibers Produced by connective tissue Strength and filtration Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Epithelial Tissues Figure 4–2 Intercellular Connections

Epithelial Tissues Epithelial Maintenance and Repair
Epithelia are replaced by division of germinative cells (stem cells) Near basal lamina Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Classification of Epithelia
Singular epithelium; plural epithelia Classes of Epithelia Based on shape Squamous epithelia: thin and flat Cuboidal epithelia: square shaped Columnar epithelia: tall, slender rectangles Based on layers Simple epithelium: single layer of cells Stratified epithelium: several layers of cells Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Squamous Epithelia Simple squamous epithelium Absorption and diffusion Mesothelium Lines body cavities Endothelium Lines heart and blood vessels Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Squamous Epithelia Stratified squamous epithelium Protects against attacks Keratin protein adds strength and water resistance Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Cuboidal Epithelia Simple cuboidal epithelium Secretion and absorption Stratified cuboidal epithelia Sweat ducts and mammary ducts Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Transitional Epithelium Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling and returns to its previous shape without damage Appearance changes as stretching occurs Situated in regions of the urinary system (e.g. urinary bladder) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Columnar Epithelia Simple columnar epithelium Absorption and secretion Pseudostratified columnar epithelium Cilia movement Stratified columnar epithelium Protection Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Glandular Epithelia Endocrine glands Release hormones: into interstitial fluid no ducts Exocrine glands Produce secretions: onto epithelial surfaces through ducts Mechanisms of Glandular Secretion Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Modes of Secretion in Glandular Epithelia Merocrine secretion Is produced in Golgi apparatus Is released by vesicles (exocytosis) For example, sweat glands Apocrine secretion Is released by shedding cytoplasm For example, mammary gland Holocrine secretion Is released by cells bursting, killing gland cells Gland cells replaced by stem cells For example, sebaceous gland Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Glandular Epithelia Types of secretions Serous glands: watery secretions Mucous glands: secrete mucins Mixed exocrine glands: both serous and mucous Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Glandular Epithelia Gland structure Unicellular glands Mucous (goblet) cells are the only unicellular exocrine glands: scattered among epithelia for example, in intestinal lining Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Glandular Epithelia Gland structure Multicellular glands: structure of the duct: simple (undivided) compound (divided) shape of secretory portion of the gland: tubular (tube shaped) alveolar (blind pockets) relationship between ducts and glandular areas: branched (several secretory areas sharing one duct) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Connect epithelium to the rest of the body (basal lamina) Provide structure (bone) Store energy (fat) Transport materials (blood) Have no contact with environment Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Characteristics of Connective Tissues
Specialized cells Solid extracellular protein fibers Fluid extracellular ground substance The extracellular components of connective tissues (fibers and ground substance) make up the matrix Majority of tissue volume Determines specialized function Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Classification of Connective Tissues
Connective tissue proper Connect and protect Fluid connective tissues Transport Supportive connective tissues Structural strength Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Categories of Connective Tissue Proper
Loose connective tissue More ground substance, less fibers For example, fat (adipose tissue) Dense connective tissue More fibers, less ground substance For example, tendons Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Nine Cell Types of Connective Tissue Proper
Fibroblasts Fibrocytes Macrophages Adipocytes Mesenchymal cells Melanocytes Mast cells Lymphocytes Microphages Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Overview of the Immune System
Barriers Against Infection Skin Mucus Chemical secretions tears antimicrobial secretions from skin acid in stomach Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Overview of the Immune System
White blood cells (Leukocytes) Macrophages – big eaters, engulf pathogens Basophil – release histamine for inflammatory response Eosinophil – target large parasites Neutrophil – target bacteria and fungi Dendritic cells – present antigens Lymphocytes – T cells, B cells, Natural Killer cells Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Connective Tissue Proper Cells Fibroblasts
The most abundant cell type: found in all connective tissue proper secrete proteins and hyaluronan (cellular cement) Fibrocytes The second most abundant cell type: maintain the fibers of connective tissue proper Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Connective Tissue Proper Cells Mesenchymal Cells
Stem cells that respond to injury or infection: differentiate into fibroblasts, macrophages, etc. Adipocytes Fat cells: each cell stores a single, large fat droplet Melanocytes Synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Connective Tissue Proper Cells Macrophages
Large, amoeba-like cells of the immune system: eat pathogens and damaged cells fixed macrophages stay in tissue free macrophages migrate Mast Cells Stimulate inflammation after injury or infection: release histamine and heparin Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Connective Tissue Proper Cells Lymphocytes
Specialized immune cells in lymphoid (lymphatic) system: For example, lymphocytes may develop into plasma cells (plasmocytes) that produce antibodies Microphages Phagocytic blood cells: respond to signals from macrophages and mast cells For example, neutrophils and eosinophils Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Connective Tissue Fibers Collagen fibers
Most common fibers in connective tissue proper Long, straight, and unbranched Strong and flexible Resist force in one direction For example, tendons and ligaments Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Connective Tissue Fibers Reticular fibers
Network of interwoven fibers (stroma) Strong and flexible Resist force in many directions Stabilize functional cells (parenchyma) and structures For example, sheaths around organs Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Connective Tissue Fibers Elastic fibers
Contain elastin Branched and wavy Return to original length after stretching For example, elastic ligaments of vertebrae Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Ground Substance Is clear, colorless, and viscous
Fills spaces between cells and slows pathogen movement Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Embryonic Connective Tissues
Are not found in adults Mesenchyme (embryonic stem cells) The first connective tissue in embryos Mucous connective tissue Loose embryonic connective tissue Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Figure 4–9 Connective Tissues in Embryos.

Connective Tissues [INSERT FIG. 4.9b]
Figure 4–9 Connective Tissues in Embryos. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Loose Connective Tissues
The packing materials of the body Three types in adults Areolar Adipose Reticular Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Areolar Tissue Open framework Absorbs shocks
Elastic fibers make it resilient Separates skin from deeper structures (i.e. muscles) Allows skin and muscles to move independently of each other Through diffusion, it provides nutrients & oxygen to epithelial tissue above it & removes carbon dioxide Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Adipose Tissue Contains many adipocytes (fat cells)
Types of adipose tissue White fat: most common stores fat absorbs shocks slows heat loss (insulation) Brown fat: more vascularized adipocytes have many mitochondria when stimulated by nervous system, fat break down accelerates, releasing energy absorbs energy from surrounding tissues Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Adipose Tissue Adipose cells
Adipocytes in adults do not divide: expand to store fat shrink as fats are released Mesenchymal cells divide and differentiate: to produce more fat cells when more storage is needed Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Reticular Tissue Provides support
Complex, three-dimensional network Reticular organs Spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and bone marrow Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Figure 4–10 Adipose and Reticular Tissues.

Connective Tissues Dense Connective Tissues
Connective tissues proper, tightly packed with high numbers of collagen or elastic fibers Dense regular connective tissue Dense irregular connective tissue Elastic tissue Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Dense Regular Connective Tissue
Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers Tendons attach muscles to bones Ligaments connect bone to bone and stabilize organs Aponeuroses attach in sheets to large, flat muscles Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Figure 4–11 Dense Connective Tissues.

Connective Tissues Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
Interwoven networks of collagen fibers Layered in skin Around cartilages (perichondrium) Around bones (periosteum) Form capsules around some organs (e.g., liver, kidneys) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Elastic Tissue Made of elastic fibers
For example, elastic ligaments of spinal vertebrae Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Fluid Connective Tissues Blood and lymph
Watery matrix of dissolved proteins Carry specific cell types (formed elements) Formed elements of blood red blood cells (erythrocytes) white blood cells (leukocytes) platelets Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Fluid Elements of Fluid Connective Tissues
Extracellular Plasma Interstitial fluid Lymph Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Figure 4–12 Formed Elements of the Blood.

Connective Tissues Lymph Extracellular fluid
Collected from interstitial space Monitored by immune system Transported by lymphoid (lymphatic) system Returned to venous system Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective Tissues Fluid Tissue Transport Systems
Cardiovascular system (blood) Arteries Capillaries Veins Lymphoid (lymphatic) system (lymph) Lymphatic vessels Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Supportive Connective Tissues
Support soft tissues and body weight Cartilage Gel-type ground substance For shock absorption and protection Bone Calcified (made rigid by calcium salts, minerals) For weight support Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Cartilage Matrix Proteoglycans derived from chondroitin sulfates Ground substance proteins Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) surrounded by lacunae (chambers) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Cartilage Structure No blood vessels: Chondrocytes produce antiangiogenesis factor Perichondrium: Outer, fibrous layer (for strength) Inner, cellular layer (for growth and maintenance) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Types of Cartilage Hyaline cartilage Stiff, flexible support Reduces friction between bones Found in synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, and trachea Elastic cartilage Supportive but bends easily Found in external ear and epiglottis Fibrous cartilage (fibrocartilage) Limits movement Prevents bone-to-bone contact Pads knee joints Found between pubic bones and intervertebral discs Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Bone or osseous tissue Strong (calcified: calcium salt deposits) Resists shattering (flexible collagen fibers) Bone cells or osteocytes Arranged around central canals within matrix Small channels through matrix (canaliculi) access blood supply Periosteum Covers bone surfaces Fibrous layer Cellular layer Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Membranes Membranes Physical barriers that line or cover portions of the body Consist of Epithelium Connective tissues (for support) Ex.) Lamina propria: areolar tissue Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Membranes Mucous membranes (mucosae)
Line passageways that open to the outside: digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts Epithelial surfaces must be moist To reduce friction To facilitate absorption and excretion Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Membranes Serous Membranes Line cavities not open to the outside
Thin, but strong Contain transudate A fluid that reduces friction Have a parietal portion covering the cavity Have a visceral portion (serosa) covering the organs Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Membranes Three Serous Membranes Pleura: Peritoneum: Pericardium:
Lines pleural cavities Covers lungs Peritoneum: Lines peritoneal cavity Covers abdominal organs Pericardium: Lines pericardial cavity Covers heart Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Membranes Figure 4–16 Membranes.

Membranes Cutaneous membrane Synovial membranes
Is skin, surface of the body Thick, waterproof, and dry Synovial membranes Line moving, articulating joint cavities Produce synovial fluid (lubricant) Protect the ends of bones Lack a true epithelium Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Membranes Figure 4–16 Membranes.

Internal Framework of the Body
Connective tissues Provide strength and stability Maintain positions of internal organs Provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves Fasciae Singular form is fascia The body’s framework of connective tissue Layers and wrappings that support or surround organs Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Three Types of Fasciae 1. Superficial fascia layer of areolar & fat tissues separating the skin from underlying tissues & organs 2. Deep fascia Dense irregular tissue that is strong & connects elements of the body Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Three Types of Fasciae 2. Deep fascia Dense irregular tissue that adds strenght and support Fibers in each layer run in one direction Each layer of fibers runs in a different direction Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Muscle Tissue Specialized for contraction Produces all body movement
Three types of muscle tissue Skeletal muscle Large body muscles responsible for movement Cardiac muscle Found only in the heart Smooth muscle Found in walls of hollow, contracting organs (blood vessels; urinary bladder; respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tracts) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Muscle Tissue Classification of Muscle Cells
Striated (muscle cells with a banded appearance) Nonstriated (not banded; smooth) Muscle cells can have a single nucleus Muscle cells can be multinucleate Muscle cells can be controlled voluntarily (consciously) Muscle cells can be controlled involuntarily (automatically) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Muscle Tissue Skeletal Muscle Cells Are long and thin
Are usually called muscle fibers Do not divide New fibers are produced by stem cells (myosatellite cells) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Muscle Tissue Figure 4–18 Muscle Tissue.

Muscle Tissue Cardiac muscle cells Smooth muscle cells
Are called cardiocytes Form branching networks connected at intercalated discs Are regulated by pacemaker cells Smooth muscle cells Are small and tapered Can divide and regenerate Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Muscle Tissue Figure 4–18 Muscle Tissue.

Neural Tissue Also called nervous or nerve tissue
Specialized for conducting electrical impulses Rapidly senses internal or external environment Processes information and controls responses Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Neural Tissue Two Kinds of Neural Cells Neurons Neuroglia Nerve cells
Perform electrical communication Neuroglia Supporting cells Repair and supply nutrients to neurons Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Neural Tissue Cell Parts of a Neuron Cell body Dendrites
Contains the nucleus and nucleolus Dendrites Short branches extending from the cell body Receive incoming signals Axon (nerve fiber) Long, thin extension of the cell body Carries outgoing electrical signals to their destination Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Neural Tissue Figure 4–19 Neural Tissue.

Tissue Injuries and Repair
Tissues respond to injuries to maintain homeostasis Cells restore homeostasis with two processes Inflammation Regeneration Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Inflammation = inflammatory response The tissue’s first response to injury Signs and symptoms of the inflammatory response include Swelling Redness Heat Pain Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The Process of Inflammation Damaged cells release chemical signals into the surrounding interstitial fluid Prostaglandins Proteins Potassium ions As cells break down Lysosomes release enzymes That destroy the injured cell And attack surrounding tissues Tissue destruction is called necrosis Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The Process of Inflammation Necrotic tissues and cellular debris (pus) accumulate in the wound Abscess: pus trapped in an enclosed area Injury stimulates mast cells to release Histamine Heparin Prostaglandins Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The Process of Inflammation Dilation of blood vessels Increases blood circulation in the area Causes warmth and redness Brings more nutrients and oxygen to the area Removes wastes Plasma diffuses into the area Causing swelling and pain Phagocytic white blood cells Clean up the area Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The Process of Regeneration Fibrocytes move into necrotic area Lay down collagen fibers To bind the area together (scar tissue) New cells migrate into area Or are produced by mesenchymal stem cells Not all tissues can regenerate Epithelia and connective tissues regenerate well Cardiac cells and neurons do not regenerate (or regenerate poorly) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Aging and Tissue Aging and Tissue Structure
Speed and efficiency of tissue repair decreases with age, due to Slower rate of energy consumption (metabolism) Hormonal alterations Reduced physical activity Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Aging and Tissue Effects of Aging
Chemical and structural tissue changes Thinning epithelia and connective tissues Increased bruising and bone brittleness Joint pain and broken bones Cardiovascular disease Mental deterioration Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Aging and Tissue Aging and Cancer Incidence
Cancer rates increase with age 1 in 4 people in the United States develops cancer Cancer is the #2 cause of death in the United States Environmental chemicals and cigarette smoke cause cancer Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

4 The Tissue Level of Organization C h a p t e r

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