1. Cognition (Thinking) Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

2. Concepts (schemas) = mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people …usually based on prototypes (mental image or best example of a category) Scripts = schemas about familiar sequences of activities (sequence of events at a restaurant) A robin is a prototype of a bird, a penguin is not.

3. Algorithms A rule (step-by-step procedure) that guarantees the right solution to a problem. They work but are sometimes impractical. S P L O Y O C H Y G If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face 907,200 possibilities.

4. Heuristics A rule of thumb that generally, but not always, can be used to make a judgment to solve a problem. It is fast, but is… Prone to errors Two major types of heuristics Heuristics are a mental “short cut” S P L O Y O C H Y G P S Y C H O L O G YP S L O Y O C H G YS P L O Y O C H G Y Rule out “YY” combinations Put a Y at the end, and see if the word begins to make sense.

5. Representativeness Heuristic Judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to the prototypes the person holds in their mind.

6. Availability Heuristic Judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind. Vivid examples in the news often cause an availability heuristic.

7. Anchoring Heuristic People estimate event’s probability by adjusting earlier estimate Ex: If asked whether the population of Turkey was greater or less than 30 million, you might give one or other answer. If then asked what you thought the actual population was, you would very likely guess somewhere around 30 million, because you have been anchored by the previous answer.

8.  Insight  Sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem  Contrasts with strategy- based solutions – Both humans and animals have insight

9. Creativity (divergent thinking) – Ability to produce ideas or solutions that are both novel and valuable

10. Obstacles to Problem Solving Mental set = tendency to stick to problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past Fixation – unable to see problem from fresh perspective The Matchstick Problem: How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?

11. The Matchstick Problem: Solution From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

12. Obstacles to Problem Solving Functional Fixedness – tendency to think of things only for their usual functions All he needed was a ball-point pen and a paper clip.

13. Heuristics can lead to Overconfidence… Our confidence is not a good indicator of how right we are. Overconfidence: tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge & beliefs This is going to be disaster, and you have no one to blame but yourself.

14. Belief Perseverance- maintaining a belief even after it has been proven wrong. Confirmation bias: looking for info that supports our preconceptions, ignoring contrary info

15. Framing Effect 90% of the population will be saved with this medication…..or 10% of the population will die despite this medication. What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean? The way a problem is presented can drastically effect the way we view it.

16. Intuition Effortless, immediate, automatic feelings or thought Gut-sense

17. Perils & Powers of Intuition Intuition may be perilous if unchecked, but may also be extremely efficient and adaptive. “Intuition’s Dozen Deadly Sins”, or the seven we have actually covered so far: Hindsight Bias, Illusory Correlation, Memory Construction, Representativeness and Availability Heuristics, Overconfidence, Belief Perseverence and Confirmation Bias, and Framing.

18. Language

19. Structure of Language Phonemes - Consonants, vowels, th, sh, ch,…. Morphemes - Dog, van, ing, ed,… How many phonemes (sounds) are in these words? Thing Psychology Hopes Sun Quickly Wish Weigh Laughed Nation How many morphemes in the following words? People Swimming Orange Literally Reddish Radish Waited George’s Misspell Antidisestablishmentarianism

20. Structure of Language Words = 1 or more morphemes Syntax = set of rules to combine words Semantics govern meaning “the girl the boy saw” – violates syntax “the rapid freedom ran around the curious emptiness” – obeys syntax, but makes no sense due to meaning of the words

21. Language Development Receptive Language - ability to comprehend speech – 7 months of age Productive Language – ability to produce words – 12 months of age

22. Language Development Babbling stage (4 months) One-word stage (1 year) Two-word stage (2 years) Telegraphic speech

23. Challenges in Language Development Overextension – Same word applies to many things – “Juice” refers to milk, water, juice, etc. Underextension – Only use word to apply to one specific example, rather than using it for others – Calls own dog “dog”, but not other dogs “dog” Overregularization/overgeneralization – Apply grammar rules w/out making appropriate exceptions – EX: She “goed” to the store

24. Explaining Language Development Skinner & Behaviorism – Association for seeing & hearing words – Imitation – Reinforcement or punishment

25. Thinking & Language Linguistic determinism (Whorff) – Language determines way we think Inuit people have many words for “snow”, whereas English does not – Culturally influenced

26. Thinking & Language Bilingual advantage (Lambert) – Bilingual children who learn to inhibit one language while learning another, are also better able to inhibit their attention to irrelevant info

27. Explaining Language Development Chomsky (Nativist theory) & Inborn Universal Grammar – Language acquisition device: innate mechanism or process that allows language (unique to humans) – Universal grammar: common structure for language among all cultures Nature or nurture?

28. Explaining Language Development Critical Periods – After early language development, we lose ability to pronounce sounds that are not used in our primary language

29. Thinking in Images Implicit memory – mental picture of how you do a task Watching an activity will activate brain’s internal stimulation of it (mirror neurons) – Dancers rehearse choreography in their minds – Pianists rehearse playing piano by imagining it

30. Do animals use language? Bees have form of communication Chimps & gorillas have been taught to “sign” – but do they understand meaning? Humans are unique in ability to speak complex language

32. References Kaplan, H. Thinking (PPT file). Retrieved from AP Psychology Commune web Site: http://www.appsychology.com http://www.appsychology.com Myers, D.G. (2011). Myers’ psychology for AP. Holland, MI: Worth Publishers.