1. What makes us smart? Or not so smart?
Intelligence
What makes us smart?
Or not so smart?

2. Intelligence
Intelligence – a mental ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
Culturally constructed - defined according to the attributes that enable success in a culture
Example:
Intelligence
mental ability to learn from experience
Defined by the attributes that enable success in a culture – socially constructed
Ex. In Solon High School it is….
Intelligence tests – assess individuals mental aptitude and compare them with others
A sort of problem solving that demonstrates school smarts is what has been assessed historically
Ex. Stanford Binet, WISC, WAIS
Great debate over whether we have inborn intelligence (mental capacity and can we quantify it as a meaningful number. To what extent is it heredity or environment
Reification – viewing an abstract immaterial concept as if it were a concrete thing.
I am gifted because I have an IQ of 140 – better to say I scored 140 on the intelligence test
*The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations is known as
According to this definition, are both Einstein and Ruth intelligent?

3. Intelligence Tests
Intelligence Test – a method of assessing mental aptitudes and comparing them with others
Reification – converting something abstract into a material thing
Example:

4. Theories of Intelligence
g-intelligence (Spearman)
Thurstone’s primary mental abilities
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence
Sternberg’s Three Intelligences
Goldman’s Emotional Intelligence

5. G factor (Spearman)
General Intelligence (G) - a general intelligence that underlies successful performance on a wide variety of tasks.
measured with a single numerical score
Example –
Factor analysis – statistical procedure used to identify clusters of closely related test items.
Used to assess whether intelligence is a single trait or a collection of several distinct abilities (G intelligence uses factor analysis)
*People's scores on the general intelligence factor are most highly correlated with their ability to solve novel problems.
Those who emphasize the importance of the g factor would be most likely to encourage
quantifying intelligence with a single numerical score.
L. L. Thurstone identified seven clusters of primary mental abilities, including word fluency, memory, and inductive reasoning. He claimed that word fluency involves a different dimension of intelligence from that of reasoning.
Investigators detected a tendency for those who excelled in one of Thurstone's seven primary mental abilities to also demonstrate high levels of competence in other abilities. This provided some evidence of a general intelligence

6. L.L. Thurstone
Thurstone challenged Spearman - identified 7 clusters of mental ability
Word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability inductive reasoning and memory
Later found

7. Howard Gardner and Multiple Intelligences
Gardner believed that there exists at least 7 different types of intelligences.
Linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Body-kinesthetic
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Naturalist
Example
*People's scores on the general intelligence factor are most highly correlated with their ability to solve novel problems.
A person who demonstrates an exceptional specific mental skill while otherwise remaining very limited in intellectual capacity is said to show signs of savant syndrome
Show video
Twenty-five-year-old Alexandra is mentally handicapped and can neither read nor write. However, after hearing lengthy, unfamiliar, and complex musical selections just once, she can reproduce them precisely on the piano. It is likely that Alexandra is someone with Savant Syndrom
Psychological tests show that 18-year-old Isaiah has an intelligence score of 65. Nevertheless, Isaiah can, with a few seconds of mental calculation, accurately tell the day of the week on which Christmas falls for any year in this century
criticized for extending the definition of intelligence to an overly broad range of talents?
Those who emphasize the importance of the g factor would be most likely to encourage

8. Triarchic Theory (Sternberg)
Most commonly accepted theory today.
Three types of intelligence
Analytical
Example:
2. Creative
3. Practical
distinguished among analytical, practical, and creative intelligence.
Analytical intelligence - Selma, a fifth-grader who solves complicated mathematical problems in record time
Practical intelligence - Shelley, a newspaper reporter who has established a large network of information sources

9. EQ – Emotional Quotient (Goldman)
Emotional Intelligence – ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions
Maybe EQ is a better predictor for future success than IQ.
Social intelligence – know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully
*When Mrs. McGuire asks her students to answer questions in class, she can quickly tell from their facial expressions whether they are happy to participate.
When Andy becomes upset about getting a poor grade, he typically fails to realize that he feels scared. This lack of self-insight best illustrates an inadequate level of emotional intelligence
One component of emotional intelligence involves predicting accurately when feelings are about to change.
Although Nicole scored well above average on the SAT, she frequently loses her temper and needlessly antagonizes even her best friends. Her behavior best illustrates a low level of emotional intelligence
The concept of emotional intelligence is most likely to be criticized forextending the definition of intelligence to an overly broad range of skills.
The ability to control one's impulses and delay immediate pleasures in pursuit of long-term goals is most clearly a characteristic of emotional intelligence
In very stressful or embarrassing situations, Sanura is able to maintain her poise and help others to feel comfortable. Sanura's ability best illustrates the value of emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence is a critical component of social intelligence
Emotional intelligence = ability to
Perceive emotions – recognize them in faces music and stories
Understand emotions – to predict them and how they change and blend
Manage emotions – know how to express them in varied situations
See emotions to enable adaptive or creative thinking
ex. High IQ, but poor social skills ie, get mad easily, few friends
Control impulses and delay immediate gratification – marshmellow test

10. EQ – Emotional Quotient
Social Intelligence – the ability to comprehend social situations and managing yourself successfully
Emotional Intelligence – ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions
4 components
Criticism -
Social intelligence – know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully
*When Mrs. McGuire asks her students to answer questions in class, she can quickly tell from their facial expressions whether they are happy to participate.
When Andy becomes upset about getting a poor grade, he typically fails to realize that he feels scared. This lack of self-insight best illustrates an inadequate level of emotional intelligence
One component of emotional intelligence involves predicting accurately when feelings are about to change.
Although Nicole scored well above average on the SAT, she frequently loses her temper and needlessly antagonizes even her best friends. Her behavior best illustrates a low level of emotional intelligence
The concept of emotional intelligence is most likely to be criticized forextending the definition of intelligence to an overly broad range of skills.
The ability to control one's impulses and delay immediate pleasures in pursuit of long-term goals is most clearly a characteristic of emotional intelligence
In very stressful or embarrassing situations, Sanura is able to maintain her poise and help others to feel comfortable. Sanura's ability best illustrates the value of emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence is a critical component of social intelligence
Emotional intelligence = ability to
Perceive emotions – recognize them in faces music and stories
Understand emotions – to predict them and how they change and blend
Manage emotions – know how to express them in varied situations
See emotions to enable adaptive or creative thinking
ex. High IQ, but poor social skills ie, get mad easily, few friends
Control impulses and delay immediate gratification – marshmellow test

11. Brain Size and Intelligence Is there a link?
Small +.15 correlation between head size and intelligence scores (relative to body size).
MRI found correlation with brain size and IQ score -
Einstein’s Brian
.33 correlation with brain size and IQ score
Brain size and nonverbal IQ scores fall with age
Einstein’s brain – not heavier or larger in total size, but 15% larger in the parietal lobe’s lower region (mathematical and spatial info)

12. Brain Size and Complexity
Higher performing brains:
Intelligent children –
Highly educated people have more synapses
Greater brain plasticity due to environment – rats developed thicker and heavier cortexes if in stimulating environment

13. BBrain Function Neurological speed Perceptual Speed
Perceptual Speed – more highly intelligent take in perceptual images at greater speed
*Precocious 12- to 14-year-old college students with unusually high levels of verbal intelligence are most likely to retrieve information from memory at an unusually rapid speed.
To learn whether intelligence is related to information-processing capacities, researchers have tested participants to determine how long it takes them to perceive briefly presented visual images
The speed with which people retrieve information from memory has been found to be a predictor of their verbal intelligence.

14. Assessing Intelligence
Frances Galton – intellectual superiority was inherited
Meaured muscular power, sensory acuity, and body proportions
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon
mental age - what a person of a particular age should know.
Predict future performance through determination of mental age
Galton – Hereditary Genius (book) believed that superior intelligence was inherited
attempted to assess intellectual strengths by measuring muscular power, sensory acuity and body proportions
French govt wanted to objectively identify children with special needs and take away teacher bias on student learning potential
Assumed that a bright child would perform like a normal child at an older age
Tests were initially designed to assess academic aptitude
Never intended his test to be a numerical measure of inherited intelligence
Mental age - the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of intelligence test performance.
Measured child’s reasoning skills
If you are ten but performing at a level characteristic of an 8 year old your mental age would be 8
*Frances Galton - attempted to assess intellectual strengths by measuring muscular power, sensory acuity, and body proportions
*The French government commissioned Binet to develop an intelligence test that would reduce the need to rely on teachers' subjectively biased judgments of students' learning potential.
In developing a test of intellectual ability for Parisian schoolchildren, Binet and Simon assumed that a bright child would perform like a normal child of an older age.
Binet and Simon designed a test of intellectual abilities in order to identify children likely to have difficulty learning in regular school classes.
Intelligence tests were initially designed by Binet and Simon to assess academic aptitude
Terman wanted to use the test to encourage selective breeding of highly intelligent people. (similar to Eugenics)
US govt developed new tests to evaluate both newly arriving immigrants and WWI army recruits
Poor test scores among immigrants who were not of Anglo-Saxon heritage were attributed by some psychologists of that day to innate mental inferiority.
To determine whether a child's intellectual development was fast or slow, Binet and Simon assessed the child's mental age
Five-year-old Wilbur performs on an intelligence test at a level characteristic of an average 4-year-old. Wilbur's mental age is 4.

15. Stanford-Binet (Terman)
Used Binet’s research to construct the modern day IQ test called the Stanford-Binet Test.
IQ=Mental age/Chronological age X 100.
A 8 year old has a mental age of 10, what is her IQ?
A 12 year old has the mental age of 9, what is his IQ?
A boy has the mental age of 10 and an IQ of 200, how old is he?
mental age multiplied by chronological age divided by 100.
IQ = 125
IQ = 75
iQ = 20
Most IQ tests no longer compute an IQ, but represent the test taker’s performance relative to the ave. performance of others
*The French government commissioned Binet to develop an intelligence test that would reduce the need to rely on teachers' subjectively biased judgments of students' learning potential.
In developing a test of intellectual ability for Parisian schoolchildren, Binet and Simon assumed that a bright child would perform like a normal child of an older age.
Binet and Simon designed a test of intellectual abilities in order to identify children likely to have difficulty learning in regular school classes.
Intelligence tests were initially designed by Binet and Simon to assess academic aptitude
Terman wanted to use the test to encourage selective breeding of highly intelligent people. (similar to Eugenics)
US govt developed new tests to evaluate both newly arriving immigrants and WWI army recruits
Poor test scores among immigrants who were not of Anglo-Saxon heritage were attributed by some psychologists of that day to innate mental inferiority.
*Lewis Terman's widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test was the Stanford-Binet
For the original version of the Stanford-Binet, IQ was defined as mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100.
A 12-year-old who responded to the original Stanford-Binet with the proficiency typical of an average 9-year-old was said to have an IQ of 75
Five-year-old Benjy has an IQ of 120 on the original version of the Stanford-Binet. His mental age is 6
A 6-year-old who responded to the original Stanford-Binet with the proficiency typical of an average 8-year-old was said to have an IQ of 133.
Twelve-year-old Norman has an IQ of 75 on the original version of the Stanford-Binet. His mental age is 9
Sorina has a mental age of 10 and an IQ of 125 as measured by the Stanford-Binet. Sorina's chronological age is 8

16. Problems with the IQ Formula
It does not really work well on adults, why?
If a 60 year old woman
Answer to question = 48, 50 –older you get, the more inappropriate the IQ formula is
The original IQ formula would be LEAST appropriate for representing the intelligence test performance of college students
Binet and Terman would have been most likely to disagree about the xtent to which intelligence is determined by heredity.
Who would have been the LEAST enthusiastic about relying on eugenics for the improvement of human intellectual functioning? Binet
Eugenics would have been used to encourage selective breeding of highly intelligent people
In the early twentieth century, the U.S. government developed intelligence tests to evaluate newly arriving immigrants. Poor test scores among immigrants who were not of Anglo-Saxon heritage were attributed by some psychologists of that day to innate mental inferiority
does as well as an average 29 year old
then her IQ would be _______?
Ok, ok…an average 35 year old?
Then her IQ would be_________?
Still makes no sense!!!!!

17. The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores
About 2/3 of all test-takers fall between 85 and 115
IQs less than 70 = mental retardation. More than 130 = gifted

18. Wechsler Tests More common
Does not use the formula but uses the same scoring system.
WAIS
WISC
WPPSI

19. Aptitude v. Achievement Tests
A test designed to predict a person’s future performance.
Ability for a person to learn a new skill.
Example:
Achievement
A test designed to assess what a person has learned (knowledge and skills)
Example
Achievement tests – test learned knowledge and skills
Ex. AP Psych Exam, Drivers license test
Aptitude tests – predict ability to learn a new skill
Ex. Test to become a computer salesman/programmer
Tests designed to assess what a person has learned are called achievement tests.
Achievement tests are designed to assess knowledge and skills.
The final exam in a calculus course would be an example of a(n) achievement test.
Written exam for a drivers license would be an achievement test
Test to learn to be an auto mechanic would be an aptitude test
Test to learn how to be a computer programmer = aptitude test

20. Modern Tests of Mental Abilities
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) consists of 11 verbal and performance subtests
Assesses
verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed scores, as well as an overall intelligence score
Uses factor analysis
WISC –
Performance tests - Object assembly, picture arrangement, and block design, digit span, vocabulary
11 Separate verbal and performance tests
Overall intelligence score and separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual org. working memory, and processing speed,
Verbal test – general info, similarities, arithmetic reasoning, vocab, coprehension, digit span,
Performance – picture completion, picture arrancement, block design, object assembly, digit symbol substitution
– differences among scores can help teachers identify cognitive strengths and weaknesses.
WAIS – separate verbal and performance tests

21. Wechler Adult Intelligence Scale

22. Constructing Intelligence Tests
Standardized - a person's test performance can be compared with that of a representative pretested group.
Example:
Reliable: Test-Retest, Split-halves Methods.
Validity: Content, Predictive or Construct.
When Brandon was told that he correctly answered 80 percent of the items on a math achievement test, he asked how his performance compared with that of the average test-taker. Brandon's concern was directly related to the issue of standardization

23. Normal Bell Curve
Standardized tests form a normal distribution or bell curve
Few people deviate extremely from the ave.
more than 2 standard deviations from the mean
Examples:
Standardized- When a person's test performance can be compared with that of a representative and pretested sample of people
Normal distribution - A bell-shaped curve that characterizes a large sample of intelligence test scores is a graphic representation
Ex. A graph of American women heights, weights, mental aptitudes
2, 13.5, 34
98% fall between 70 and 130
68% fall between

24. The Flynn Effect
Performance on IQ scores has steadily increased over generations
Environmental factors NOT genetics
Reduction in malnutrition
Access to schooling
Technological advances
To avoid:
Due impart increasingly improved health and nutritian
Demonstrates that you need to have updated standardization samples
Comparing the average performance of the initial WAIS standardization sample with the average performance of the most recent WAIS standardization sample provides convincing evidence of
Not due to genetics

25. Reliability
Reliability - The extent which a test yields consistent results over time.
Spilt halves
test–retest method –
Reliability – test yields consistent results every time it is used
Researchers assess the correlation between scores obtained on two halves of a single test in order to measure the reliability of a test.
Measure alternative forms of the same test and assess the correlation between the scores
*Researchers assess the correlation between scores obtained on two halves of a single test in order to measure the reliability of a test.
Researchers assess the correlation between scores obtained on alternate forms of the same test in order to measure the reliability of the test.
Melinda completed the Computer Programming Aptitude Test when she applied for a position with Beta Electronics. Six months later, she took the same test when she applied for a position with another company. The fact that her scores were almost identical on the two occasions suggests that the test has a high degree of reliability.
Dr. Bronfman has administered her new 100-item test of abstract reasoning to a large sample of students. She is presently comparing their scores on the odd-numbered questions with those on the even-numbered questions in an effort to determine the tests reliability.

26. Validity
Validity - the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure.
Content Validity: does the test sample the behavior of interest
Examples:
Predictive Validity: does the test predict future behavior.
Validity – tests measures what it’s supposed to measure
Ex. road test for a driver's license adequately samples the tasks a driver routinely faces
“I don’t think the test predicts how well I will do in college
Content validity – test samples the pertinent behavior or criterion – road test fro driver license has content validity bcs it samples tasks a driver routinely faces
-course esams have content validity if they assess one’s mastery of a representative sample of course material
Predictive validity – should predict criterion of future performance
Predictive power of aptitude tests is strong in early school years, but weakens is later years (correlation is +.6 for children 6-12 yrs)
Intelligence scores correlate with achievement tests (+.81)
SAT is less than +.5 in predicting success in college. GRE even lower (.4)
When validate a test using a wide range of people then use it with a restricted range of people, it loses much of its predictive validity (comparing students who all have very high aptitude scores)
Academic Aptitude tests predict measure the success of an elementary students, but not higher levels
f both depressed and nondepressed individuals receive similar scores on a diagnostic test for depression, it suggests that the test is not valid
Psychologists measure the correlation between aptitude test scores and school grades in order to assess the validity of the aptitude test.
A college administrator is trying to assess whether an admissions test accurately predicts how well applicants will perform at his school. The administrator is most obviously concerned that the test is valid.

27. Intelligence Change Over Time
Infant intelligence
By age 4 –
By age 7 –
predictive validity of general aptitude tests
Depends on the type of intelligence, crystallized or fluid.
Infant intelligence – preference for looking at a new picture rather than an old – quickly shift gaze from familiar to novel
Before age 3 only moderately predict future aptitude
By Age 4 – performance on intelligence tests begins to predict adolescent and adult scores
High scoring adolescents tend to have been early readers (7th/8th grade study)
Age 7 – intelligence scores stabilize. Consistency of scores over time increases with age – more stable for a 10th grader than a 6th grader
SAT and GRE – verbal and math score correlation of .86
Intelligence scores of 11yr old scotts, retested at 80:
- high scorers – more likely to live independently; less like to suffer from Alzeimers; live longer
Stability of intelligence scores overtime is most positively correlated with chronological age
Academic aptitude test scores are most likely to predict accurately the academic success of elementary students.
The high positive correlations between scores received on comparable sections of the SAT and GRE provide evidence for the reliability of these test scores.
Research has indicated that seventh- and eighth-graders who outscored most high school seniors on a college aptitude test had begun reading at an unusually early age.
When Ian Deary and his colleagues retested 80-year-old Scots, using an intelligence test they had taken as 11-year-olds, the correlation of their scores across seven decades was .66
Women scoring in the highest 25 percent on the Scottish national intelligence test at age 11 tended to live longerthan those who scored in the lowest 25 percent.

28. Fluid intelligence

29. Crystallized intelligence

30. Extremes of Intelligence
Akrit Jaswal

31. The Low Extreme
Intellectual disability – both a low test score and difficulty adapting to independent living
Mental retardation
Down syndrome
Mainstreamed
Low extreme – IQ= 70 or below
Intellectual disability – have to have both a low test score and difficulty adapting to independent living (1% of population)
Down syndrome – extra chromosome 21
Trend over last 50 years has been to mainstream children with mild intellectual disabilities into regular and less restricted classrooms
% of people diagnosed with intellectual disability has increased over past 80 years because test have been restandardized
Mr. and Mrs. Linkletter are parents of an intellectually disabled child. It is most likely that their child will have difficulty adapting to the normal demands of independent adult life.
Sasha has a mild intellectual disability. She has achieved the equivalent of a fifth-grade education and will soon begin vocational training so that she can earn a living. Sasha's intelligence score is most likely between 50-69

32. Classifications of Intellectual Disability
Level
Approximate Intelligence Scores
Adaptation to Demands of Life
Mild
50-70
May learn academic skills up to sixth-grade level. Adults may with assistance, achieve self-supporting social and vocational skills
Moderate
35-50
May progress to second-grade level academically. Adults may contribute to their own support by laboring in sheltered workshops
Severe
20-35
May learn to talk and to perform simple tasks under close supervision but are generally unable to profit from vocational training

33. Classifications of Intellectual Disability
Level
Approximate Intelligence Scores
Adaptation to Demands of Life
Mild
50-70
May learn academic skills up to sixth-grade level. Adults may with assistance, achieve self-supporting social and vocational skills
Moderate
35-50
May progress to second-grade level academically. Adults may contribute to their own support by laboring in sheltered workshops
Severe
20-35
May learn to talk and to perform simple tasks under close supervision but are generally unable to profit from vocational training
Hanan, a 22-year-old, has an intellectual disability. Although not fully self-supporting, she earns some money by working in a sheltered workshop. She has been able to master basic skills equivalent to those of a second-grader. Hanan's intelligence test score is most likely between 50-69

34. Classifications of Intellectual Disability
Level
Approximate Intelligence Scores
Adaptation to Demands of Life
Mild
50-70
May learn academic skills up to sixth-grade level. Adults may with assistance, achieve self-supporting social and vocational skills
Moderate
35-50
May progress to second-grade level academically. Adults may contribute to their own support by laboring in sheltered workshops
Severe
20-35
May learn to talk and to perform simple tasks under close supervision but are generally unable to profit from vocational training
anan, a 22-year-old, has an intellectual disability. Although not fully self-supporting, she earns some money by working in a sheltered workshop. She has been able to master basic skills equivalent to those of a second-grader. Hanan's intelligence test score is most likely between 35-50

35. Classifications of Intellectual Disability
Level
Approximate Intelligence Scores
Adaptation to Demands of Life
Mild
50-70
May learn academic skills up to sixth-grade level. Adults may with assistance, achieve self-supporting social and vocational skills
Moderate
35-50
May progress to second-grade level academically. Adults may contribute to their own support by laboring in sheltered workshops
Severe
20-35
May learn to talk and to perform simple tasks under close supervision but are generally unable to profit from vocational training

36. Classifications of Intellectual Disability
Level
Approximate Intelligence Scores
Adaptation to Demands of Life
Mild
50-70
May learn academic skills up to sixth-grade level. Adults may with assistance, achieve self-supporting social and vocational skills
Moderate
35-50
May progress to second-grade level academically. Adults may contribute to their own support by laboring in sheltered workshops
Severe
20-35
May learn to talk and to perform simple tasks under close supervision but are generally unable to profit from vocational training
Profound
Below 25
Require constant aid and supervision
The percentage of people diagnosed with an intellectual disability has increased over the past 80 years because intelligence tests have been restandardized

37. The High Extreme Terman’s study of gifted Self-fulfilling prophecy
Appropriate developmental placement
Tracking students
Terman – studied children with IQ’s over Children were healthy well adjusted, unusually successful academically; most had attained high level of aducation – contridicted popular notion that gifted were socially maladjusted
Critics of gifted education –
Can lead to self fullfiling prophesies for those labeled “ungifted” and isolating them from an enriched ed enviro
- Encouraging segregation and academic tracking – can widen he achievement gap between ability groups and increase social isolation.

38. Twin and Adoption Studies
Genes and Environmental influences
Identical twin studies
Polygenetic Trait-
Adoptive children studies
3 findings support genetic contribution to intelligence
Intelligence scores of identical twins reared together– virtually identical +.85
-reared apart lower correlation shows some enviro effect
Brain scans reveal that twims have similar gray matter volume (soma) and same brain area for verbal and spatial intelligence
Identified chromosomal regions important to intelligence and have identified specific genes that influence variation in intelligence and learning disabilities
Other evidence for enviornmental
Adoption enhances intelligence scores of mistreated and neglected children
Fraternal twins tend to be more alike than other siblings bcs treated alike due to age – demonstrates influence of envior
Mental similarities between adopted families wane with age until the correlation approaches zero by adulthood
Genetic not enviro become more apparent with age – identical twins similarities increase into 80s
Polygenetic – having more than one source

39. Heritability
Heritability – variation in intelligence scores attributed to genetic factors (50%)
Example:
Heritability – variation in intelligence test scores attributed to genetic factors = 50% - credit heredity to 50% of the variation in intelligence among people being studied
percentage of variation in intelligence within a group that is attributable to genetic factors.*Never pertains to an indiviudal, only to why people differ
Twin and adoption studies help us assess heritability
The heritability of intelligence is greatest among genetically dissimilar individuals who have been raised in similar environments.

40. Heritability

41. Environmental Influences
Early environmental influences
Intellectual developmental delays
Tutored human enrichment
Mozart effect – now discounted finding that intelligence is boosted by listening to classical music
Schooling and intelligence
Project Head Start
Children raised in severely deprived environments (Iranian & Romanian orphanage), suffer intellectual developmental delays.
Tutored human enrichment – Hunt trained caregivers in Iranian orphanages to imitate babble, and teaching them sounds from persian language – babies at 22 months could name 50+ objects and body parts
Among the poor evviro can override genetic differences depressing cognitive development
Having less qualified teachers (in many poverty-level areas = lower achievement scores
Mozart effect – listening to classical music boosts cognitive ability
Now discounted finding, but music training does result in improved attention and abstract thinking ability
Targeted training – might help build mental muscles
Schooling
Head Start – govt funded preschool program
reduce the likelihood that participants will repeat grades or require special education.
increase the school readiness of children from disadvantaged home environments.
Generally the aptitude benefits disapate over time
High quality preschool programs boost emotional intelligence—creating better attitudes toward learning and reducing school dropouts and cirminality
Seeing a “growth mindset”—that intelligence is changeable rather than a fixed mindset , --brain is like a muscle that grows stronger with use as neuron connections grow. Will focus on learning and growning
Malnutrition, sensory deprivation and social isolation can retard normal brain development

42. Ian and Nolan are identical twins who were adopted into different families shortly after birth. Use what you know about the stability of intelligence over time and the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors to predict how similar Ian and Nolan's IQ scores will be at age 5 and age at 25.
Students should explain that Ian and Nolan's IQ scores are most likely very similar at age 5 because twin studies indicate that the shared genetics of identical twins, even when raised in different environments, make it very likely that they will have similar IQ scores. Ian and Nolan's IQ scores are also probably very similar at age 25, because IQ scores tend to stabilize around age 5 and usually do not change drastically over time.

43. Gender Differences in Intelligence Test Scores
Girls
Boys
Spelling – girls
Verbal ability – girls
Nonverbal – females better at remembering and locating objects
Sensation – females more sensitive to touch, taste, oder
Emotion detecting – females (read emotions in their infants and lovers – genetic?)
Math and spatial – nearly identical scores; boys score better in math problem solving
Scored higher on SAT; go into math fields, play chess (99% are word chess grandmasters)
Exposure to male hormones during pregnacy facilitates spatial abilities
Men have advantage in spatial aptitudes like rotating a 3-d shapes in one’s mind.
Male scores vary more than females – boys outnumber girls at both low and high extremes

44. Ethnic Differences in Intelligence Test Scores
Similarities
Infant intelligence
Differences
Ave. intelligence scores
Math abilities
Asians
Racial groups differ in their ave. intelligence test scores
High scoring people more likely to attain high levels of education and income
Bell curve for blacks is centered around 85; for whites around 100
Sweden and Iceland exhibit little of the gender gap in mathematical abilities found in Turkey and Korea –demonstrating that mental abilities are socially influenced
Race is not neatly defined – it’s a social construct, not biological—demonstrating that gaps on IQ test are environmental
Intelligence scores are higher today than in 1930s – demonstrating that intelligence is environmentally influenced
Asian students outperform North american students on math achievement and aptitude tests – recent phenomenon so may be more conscientiousness than competence
White and black infants have scored equally well on infant intelligence measures and when they receive same pertinent knowledge they exibit similar info. Processing skill = cultural differences may account for racial differences
Cultures rise and fall over centuries, genes do not making it difficult to attribute natural superiority to race

45. The Question of Bias Two meanings of bias Test-taker’s expectations
Popular sense –
Yes -
Scientific sense –
No -
Test-taker’s expectations
Stereotype threat - Perform worse if feel apprehensive because of stereotypes
Example:
Biased if it detects not only innate difference in intelligence, but performance differences caused by cultural experiences
Most likely to be culturally biased in terms of content validity
Scientific sense – valid if predicts future of all test takers not just some groups – consensus is that major aptitude tests are not biased – predictive validity – measure what they intend to measure ie. Success in college
Test-taker’s expectations
Stereotype threat
Women performed lower on math test then men bcs they felt apprehensive
Blacks scored lower than whites when tested by whites than by black
Self-fulfilling expections can be triggered by the stereotype threat
When completing a verbal aptitude test, it minority group thinks it is biased, will perform lower than their ability
Experts who defend against racial bias in tests note that differences occur in both verbal and nonverbal tests
Agree that tests have predictive ability for both blacks and whites
Tests help to eliminate personal opinions and subjective judgments in student’s academic potetial
*Experts who defend intelligence tests against accusations of racial bias note that racial differences in intelligence test scores occur on nonverbal as well as verbal intelligence test subscales.
Psychologists would be likely to agree that intelligence tests have comparable predictive validity for Whites and Blacks.
Intelligence tests have effectively reduced discrimination in the sense that they have helped limit reliance on educators' subjectively biased judgments of students' academic potential.