1. Kent Burr, Adrian Ivan, Don Castleberry, Jim LeBlanc Detector Technology Lab, GE Research Design of Scintillator Arrays for Dual-End Depth-of- Interaction Encoding Small-Animal PET Detectors

2. Shrink the bore and use long crystals  Increase sensitivity but … Parallax error  Lose resolution No DOI PET Scanner 3D Position Information Breaks Inverse Relationship between Sensitivity and Resolution Position Sensitive APD Scintillator block DOI resolution = 5 mm Actual Event Line Recon Line Challenges in Small-Animal PET *animated

3. Position Sensitive APD* introduction high resistivity layer on back of APD D A B C 4 corner contacts on back deep-diffused silicon APD optical photons incident on front surface *PSAPDs manufactured by Radiation Monitoring Devices, Inc., Watertown, MA, USA. x = (A+B)-(C+D) (A+B+C+D) y = (A+D)-(B+C) (A+B+C+D) 02004006008001000120014001600 1 10 100 1000 10000 Gain Bias Voltage (V) T = 20°C 050010001500200025003000 -15 -10 -5 0 Gain Gain Temperature Coefficient (%/ °C) normal operating range

4. Bottom PSAPD pulse height Top PSAPD pulse height 511 keV DOI = 0mm (center of crystals) Top PSAPD Scintillator array Bottom PSAPD z scintillator slab PMT 22 Na source Depth-of-Interaction Illustration *animated

5. Top PSAPD Scintillator array Bottom PSAPD z scintillator slab PMT 22 Na source Bottom PSAPD pulse height Top PSAPD pulse height Top PSAPD Scintillator array Bottom PSAPD z scintillator slab PMT 22 Na source Bottom PSAPD pulse height Top PSAPD pulse height Top PSAPD Scintillator array Bottom PSAPD z scintillator slab PMT 22 Na source Bottom PSAPD pulse height Top PSAPD pulse height Top PSAPD Scintillator array Bottom PSAPD z scintillator slab PMT 22 Na source Bottom PSAPD pulse height Top PSAPD pulse height Top PSAPD Scintillator array Bottom PSAPD z scintillator slab PMT 22 Na source Bottom PSAPD pulse height Top PSAPD pulse height Top PSAPD Scintillator array Bottom PSAPD z scintillator slab PMT 22 Na source Bottom PSAPD pulse height Top PSAPD pulse height Top PSAPD Scintillator array Bottom PSAPD z scintillator slab PMT 22 Na source Bottom PSAPD pulse height Top PSAPD pulse height Depth-of-Interaction Illustration *animated

6. Scintillator Array Design scintillator array attribute scintillator material array size, crystal dimensions reflector material crystal side surface roughness selection mixed lutetium silicate, MLS 8x8 array, 1.65mm x 1.65mm x 22mm Teflon tape VM2000 (3M Corp.) P (polished, 7nm rms) M5 (lapped with 5  m grit, 16nm rms) M10 (lapped with 10  m grit, 700nm rms) M20 (lapped with 20  m grit, 1000nm rms) reason high light output, high density & Z, fast decay PSAPD size, resolution, sensitivity, crystal cutting capabilities experimental

7. VM2000Teflon reflector material

8. VM2000 laser cut film much faster assembly improved reproducibility reduced dead-space somewhat reduced light collection efficiency (~75% of Teflon) Teflon best light collection time-consuming to assemble well-known problems with reproducibility, shrinkage, wicking, etc. 1mm

9. Scintillator Array Experiments Black P P P P P P M5 M10 M20 4 different surfaces (P, M5, M10, M20) 2 reflector materials (Teflon, VM2000) 5x5 array of crystals (parallel data acquisition under identical conditions) 1.9mm x 1.9mm x 20mm MLS crystals 14mm x14mm PSAPD arrangement chosen so that: each row and column have at least one of each crystal type central 3x3 of array has at least two crystals of each type “black” crystal used for unambiguous identification of crystals each corner crystal has different surface each 2x2 in corner has one crystal of each type, except for corner that has “black” crystal

10. Scintillator Array Experiments: Results 0 5 10 15 20 PolishedM5M10M20 Energy Resolution (%) Surface Treatment VM2000, 12.4°C Teflon, 19.6°C Teflon, 9.8°C 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 Timing Resolution (ns) PolishedM5M10M20 Surface Treatment Teflon, 12.1°C Roughening the surface improves DOI … … without degrading energy resolution and timing resolution.

11. Detector Evolution *animated

12. Detector Specifications PSAPD 14 mm x 14 mm active area operated at 10°C and -1630V gain ~950 leakage current ~1µA Scintillator array 8x8 MLS 1.65 mm x 1.65 mm x 22.00 mm 1.75 mm pitch 3M VM2000 reflective film rough side surfaces, polished ends coupled to PSAPD using Cargille Meltmount Electronics corner contacts: low noise JFET input wide bandwidth transimpedance amplifier with a 100 kohm transimpedance gain trigger and energy signal from analog sum of corner contacts

13. Flood Histogram – 22 Na Energy Window: 250-650 keV 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

14. DOI Resolution Energy Window: 250-650 keV Integrated counts from all crystals. Normalized Counts -10-50510 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Depth (mm)

15. Width of Electronically Collimated Beam scintillator slab PMT 22 Na source z

16. DOI Resolution (deconvolved) Energy Window: 250-650 keV Integrated counts from all crystals. Normalized Counts -10-50510 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Depth (mm)

17. DOI Resolution Map* DOI Resolution (FWHM, mm)* 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 Crystal Column Number Crystal Row Number 12345678 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 *without deconvolution of beam width

18. Energy Resolution Map 15 15.5 16 16.5 17 17.5 18 18.5 19 19.5 Crystal Column Number Crystal Row Number 12345678 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Energy Resolution (FWHM, %)

19. Timing Resolution Distribution 2.533.544.555.5 0 5 10 15 Timing Resolution (FWHM, ns) Number of Crystals

20. Radiation Damage? (preliminary measurements) Small-animal PET is not a “high radiation” environment. *depending on scanner utilization assumptions small-animal scanner 14mm x 14mm PSAPDs ~10 cm bore 22 mm long MLS crystals Exposed PSAPD to 2 - 10 years* equivalent accumulated 511 keV flux test setup 22 Na source 8mm x 8mm PSAPD 4x4 array of 22 mm long MLS crystals short distance (bias to operating voltage for entire exposure, 10°C) 020406080100120140160 0 20 40 60 80 0 50 100 150 200 pre-radiation 020406080100120140160 0 20 40 60 80 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 post-radiation No Negative Impact on Performance Observed

21. Conclusion Demonstrated High-Res DOI PET detector with: 8x8 array of 1.65 mm x 1.65 mm x 22.00 mm crystals, with surface treatments chosen to optimize DOI resolution Minimal dead-space within array Compact front-end electronics No radiation damage effects observed Tileable design Excellent performance DOI resolution of <3 mm FWHM Energy resolution of ~16% FWHM Timing resolution of ~4 ns FWHM (vs. plastic)

22. References DOI in PET L. R. MacDonald and M. Dahlbom, "Parallax Correction in PET Using Depth of Interaction Information," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 2232 – 2237, Aug. 1998. Y. Shao, R. M. Manjeshwar, F. P. Jansen, P. N. Kumar, A. F. Chatziioannou, “Simulation Studies for a High Resolution and High Sensitivity Small Animal PET with DOI Detection Capability,” presented at IEEE Medical Imaging Conference, M6-11, Portland, OR, Oct. 2003. dual-end readout W. W. Moses, S. E. Derenzo, "Design Studies for a PET Detector Module Using a PIN Photodiode to Measure Depth of Interaction," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., vol. 41, pp. 1441 – 1445, Aug. 1994. Y. Shao, K. Meadors, R. W. Silverman, R. Farrell, L. Cirignano, R. Grazioso, K. S. Shah, S. R. Cherry, "Dual APD Array Readout of LSO Crystals: Optimization of Crystal Surface Treatment," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 649 – 654, June 2002. PSAPDs K. S. Shah, R. Farrell, R. Grazioso, E. S. Harmon, E. Karplus, "Position-Sensitive Avalanche Photodiodes for Gamma- Ray Imaging," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 1687 – 1692, Aug. 2002. MLS C. M. Pepin, P. Berard, R. Lecomte, "Comparison of LSO, LGSO and MLS Scintillators," in Proc. IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium, vol. 1, San Diego, CA, Nov. 2001, pp. 124 – 128. VM2000 R. S. Miyaoka, S. G. Kohlmyer, T. K. Lewellen, "Performance Characteristics of Micro Crystal Element (MiCE) Detectors," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., vol. 48, no. 4, pp. 1403 – 1407, Aug. 2001. Acknowledgment K. Shah and R. Farrell (RMD). T. Lewellen, R. Miyaoka, and M. Janes (U. Wash).