1. Iran

3. Shah Isma`il 1501-24 Established Shi`ism as state religion of Safavid Dynasty Imported Shi`a ulama and legal experts – especially from Lebanon Isma`il claimed to be descended form the seventh Imam, to be divinely inspired and to be the earthly representative of the Hidden 12 th Imam  religious authority by successors

4. Safavid Empire Conquered by the Qizilbash tribesmen Isma`il their leader Tribal leaders rewarded with land; became provincial governors Isma`il added bureaucrats to the formula  created an absolutist bureaucratic empire

5. Military development Rivalry between Qizilbash tribes threatened existence of the Safavid empire  Shah Abbas (1587-1629) created a standing royal army composed by Christian slaves; a gunpowder force To finance the army, Shah Abbas centralized land ownership to the throne  tribes weakened Isfahan became the capital under Shah Abbas

6. Stability  Decline Shah Abbas’ “centralized machinery of government” stabilized the empire – survived despite a series of incompetent rulers Peace and stability  decline of army  unable to defeat rebellious chieftain from Afghanistan in 1722; end of Safavid dynasty Lengthy period of decentralization ensued

7. Qajar Dynasty The Qajars were never able to fully centralize the empire; the centrifugal elements were too powerful: – Shi`a religious establishment became detached and independent from the government. The Qajar shahs never claimed right to divinity (unlike the Safavids)  religious authority questioned  the ulama gained the exclusive right to be religious leaders; interpreted laws and practice of religion. The ayatollah was the superior leader of the religious establishment Controlled education, justice system and amassed considerable wealth (collection of religious taxes, fees, etc.)

8. Qajar dynasty cont. “No military security, no administrative stability and little ideological legitimacy” 2 nd half of 19 th century: – 3000 troops in the army; real military power with the tribal chieftains – Tribal political and financial autonomy – Qajar dynasts practiced “divide and rule” to stay in power – Tax collecting abilities very limited  state always broke Attempts at military reform; Cossack brigade (1879) only lasting and efficient result

9. Administration in the Qajar era Limited administrative reform – No development of a cadre of civil servants; local government sold to highest bidder – Rampant bribery and extortion  The government resented among regular people; the state did not provide security/protection and local officials exploited the population Education: – Only state sponsored, “western” school: Dar al-Funun (1851) – Education firmly controlled by the ulama Justice system: – Ulama administered justice based on their monopoly on religious interpretations

10. Iran and the Europeans Strategic importance Main rivals: Russia and Britain – Iran “allowed to” exist as a buffer state between the interests of these two empires Russian expansion into Iranian provinces; Turkestan, Caucasus, Azerbaijan, etc. “Capitulation” treaties imposed on Iran by Russia and Britain in the 1800s  European economic penetration – Economic transformation of Iran followed a similar pattern to Egypt and the Ottoman Empire although at a smaller scale – Intense competition over concessions

11. Popular unrest; the Tobacco Protest of 1891 The Qajar government was inefficient and corrupt and allowed foreign economic exploitation  popular dissatisfaction 1890: an English company granted the exclusive right to produce, sell and export Iran’s entire tobacco crop  a protest organized and led by the ulama developed; use of tobacco unlawful until concession was canceled  boycott of tobacco products 1892: Tobacco concession cancelled