1. Chapter 10 Sexual Reproduction
and Genetics
Section 1: Meiosis
Section 2: Mendelian Genetics
Section 3: Gene Linkage and Polyploidy

2. Chromosomes and Chromosome Number
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Chromosomes and Chromosome Number
Human body cells have 46 chromosomes
Each parent contributes 23 chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes—one of two paired chromosomes, one from each parent

3. Chromosomes and Chromosome Number
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Chromosomes and Chromosome Number
Same length
Same centromere position
Carry genes that control the same inherited traits

4. Haploid and Diploid Cells
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Haploid and Diploid Cells
An organism produces gametes to maintain the same number of chromosomes from generation to generation.
Human gametes contain 23 chromosomes.
A cell with n chromosomes is called a haploid cell. A single set of chromosomes (half the full set of genetic material)
A cell that contains 2n chromosomes is called a diploid cell. A cell that has two sets of chromosomes; one set from the father and one from the mother.

5. The sexual life cycle in animals involves meiosis.
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Meiosis I
The sexual life cycle in animals involves meiosis.
Meiosis produces gametes.
When gametes
combine in fertilization, the number of
chromosomes is restored.

6. Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Stages of Meiosis I
Reduces the chromosome number by half through the separation of homologous chromosomes
Involves two consecutive cell divisions called meiosis I and meiosis II
PMAT I and PMAT II

7. Chromosomes replicate.
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Meiosis I
Interphase
Chromosomes replicate.
Chromatin condenses.
Interphase

8. Pairing of homologous chromosomes occurs.
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Meiosis I
Prophase I
Pairing of homologous chromosomes occurs.
Each chromosome consists of two chromatids.
Prophase I
The nuclear envelope breaks down.
Spindles form.

9. Crossing over produces exchange of genetic information.
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Meiosis I
Prophase I
Crossing over produces exchange of genetic information.
Crossing over—chromosomal segments are exchanged between a pair of homologous chromosomes.

10. Chromosome centromeres attach to spindle fibers.
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Meiosis I
Metaphase I
Chromosome centromeres attach to spindle fibers.
Metaphase I
Homologous chromosomes line up at the equator.

11. Homologous chromosomes separate and move
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Meiosis I
Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes separate and move
to opposite poles of the cell.
Anaphase I

12. The spindles break down.
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Meiosis I
Telophase I
The spindles break down.
Telophase I
Chromosomes uncoil and form two nuclei.
The cell divides.

13. A second set of phases begins
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Meiosis II
Prophase II
A second set of phases begins
as the spindle apparatus forms and the
chromosomes condense.
Prophase II

14. A haploid number of chromosomes
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Meiosis II
Metaphase II
A haploid number of chromosomes
line up at the equator.
Metaphase II

15. The sister chromatids are
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Meiosis II
Anaphase II
The sister chromatids are
pulled apart at the centromere by spindle
fibers and move toward the opposite poles
of the cell.
Anaphase II

16. The chromosomes reach the poles, and
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Meiosis II
Telophase II
The chromosomes reach the poles, and
the nuclear membrane and nuclei reform.
Telophase II

17. Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Meiosis II
Cytokinesis results in four haploid cells, each with n number of chromosomes.
Cytokinesis

18. How to tell which process (mitosis, meiosis I, or meiosis II)?
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
How to tell which process (mitosis, meiosis I, or meiosis II)?
Look at how the chromosomes are lined up?
a. PAIRS….must be Meiosis I
b. SINGLE FILE…Mitosis or Meiosis II
Look at the chromosome number:
# is HAPLOID = must be Meiosis II
# is DIPLOID = must be Mitosis

19. The Importance of Meiosis
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
The Importance of Meiosis
Meiosis consists of two sets of divisions
Produces four haploid daughter cells that are not identical
Results in genetic variation

20. Meiosis Provides Variation
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Meiosis Provides Variation
Depending on how the chromosomes line up at the equator, four gametes with four different combinations of chromosomes can result.
Genetic variation also is produced during crossing over and during fertilization, when gametes randomly combine.

21. Sexual Reproduction v. Asexual Reproduction
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Meiosis
Sexual Reproduction v. Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction
The organism inherits all of its chromosomes from a single parent.
The new individual is genetically identical to its parent.
Sexual reproduction
Beneficial genes multiply faster over time.

22. Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
How Genetics Began
Gregor Mendel was curious of why some pea plants had different physical characteristics (traits). Why they looked different?
He observed that the pea plants' traits were often similar to those of their parents, sometimes they were different.
The passing of traits to the next generation is called inheritance, or heredity.

23. 10.2 Mendelian Genetics
He used pea plants because they have many traits that exist in only two forms. (tall/short, green seed/yellow seed) and they were self pollinating
He decided to cross plants with opposite forms of a trait, for example, tall plants and short plants.

24. The parent generation is also known as the P generation.
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
The parent generation is also known as the P generation.

25. The second filial (F2) generation is the offspring from the F1 cross.
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
The offspring of this P cross are called the first filial (F1) generation.
The second filial (F2) generation is the offspring from the F1 cross.

26. Mendel studied seven different traits.
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
Mendel studied seven different traits.
Seed or pea color
Flower color
Seed pod color
Seed shape or texture
Seed pod shape
Stem length
Flower position

27. Some of the traits… 10.2 Mendelian Genetics Pod color Seed Color
Plant Height
Green
Yellow
Green
Yellow
Seed Shape
Pod Shape
Short
Tall
Wrinkled
Round
Smooth
Pinched

28. individual factors must control the inheritance of traits in peas.
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
MENDEL CONCLUDED:
individual factors must control the inheritance of traits in peas.
They exist in pairs and the female parent contributes one factor while the male parent contributes the other.

29. Today we call those factors that control traits genes.
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
Today we call those factors that control traits genes.
They call the different forms of gene alleles.
Although his work was not recognized until much later, Mendel is known as the father of genetics for his experiments and papers about his pea plants.

30. Usually we represent these types of traits with letters (TT, Tt, tt)
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
Genes in Pairs
Allele
An alternative form of a single gene passed from generation to generation
Dominant
Usually we represent these types of traits with letters (TT, Tt, tt)
Recessive

31. Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
Dominance
Dominance is the characteristic of a gene that produces an effect that hides the effect of the recessive gene
An organism with two of the same alleles for a particular trait is homozygous.
An organism with two different alleles for a particular trait is heterozygous.

32. Genotype and Phenotype
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
Genotype and Phenotype
An organism’s allele pairs are called its genotype. (Ex: BB, Bb, bb)
The observable characteristic or outward expression of an allele pair is called the phenotype. (Ex: blue eyes, blonde hair, etc.)

33. Mendel’s Law of Segregation
Mendel’s first law, the Law of Segregation, has three parts. From his experiments, Mendel concluded that:
1. Plant traits are handed down through “hereditary factors” in the sperm and egg.
2. Because offspring obtain hereditary factors from both parents, each plant must contain two factors for every trait.
3. The factors in a pair segregate (separate) during the formation of sex cells, and each sperm or egg receives only one member of the pair.

34. Mendel’s Law of Segregation
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
Mendel’s Law of Segregation
Two alleles for each trait separate during meiosis.
During fertilization, two alleles for that trait unite.
Heterozygous organisms are called hybrids.

35. Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
Monohybrid Cross
A cross that involves hybrids for a single trait is called a monohybrid cross.

36. Monohybrid Cross Punnett square
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
Monohybrid Cross
Punnett square
Punnett squares can be used to determine the probability of getting a certain trait
Remember that results predicted by probability are more likely to be seen when there is a large number of offspring

37. Predict the possible offspring of a cross between two known genotypes
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
Punnett Squares
Predict the possible offspring of a cross between two known genotypes

38. Dihybrids are heterozygous for both traits.
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
Dihybrid Cross
The simultaneous inheritance of two or more traits in the same plant is a dihybrid cross.
Dihybrids are heterozygous for both traits.

39. Punnett Square—Dihybrid Cross
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
Punnett Square—Dihybrid Cross
Four types of alleles from the male gametes and four types of alleles from the female gametes can be produced.
The resulting phenotypic ratio is 9:3:3:1.

40. Law of Independent Assortment
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Mendelian Genetics
Law of Independent Assortment
Random distribution of alleles occurs during gamete formation
Genes on separate chromosomes sort independently during meiosis.
Each allele combination is equally likely to occur.

41. Genetic Recombination
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.3 Gene Linkage and Polyploidy
Genetic Recombination
The new combination of genes produced by crossing over and independent assortment
Combinations of genes due to independent assortment can be calculated using the formula 2n, where n is the number of chromosome pairs.

42. Genetic Recombination
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.3 Gene Linkage and Polyploidy
Genetic Recombination
Each pea plant cell has 7 pairs of chromosomes, so 27=128 different kinds of sperm possible
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, so 223= over 8 million; now when fertilization occurs, 223x 223 = 70 trillion…no wonder each individual is unique!

43. 10.3 Gene Linkage and Polyploidy
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.3 Gene Linkage and Polyploidy
Gene Linkage
The linkage of genes on a chromosome results in an exception to Mendel’s law of independent assortment because linked genes usually do not segregate independently.

44. Polyploidy is the occurrence of one or more extra sets of all
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.3 Gene Linkage and Polyploidy
Polyploidy
Polyploidy is the occurrence of one or more extra
sets of all
chromosomes
in an organism.
A triploid organism, for instance, would be designated 3n,
which means that
it has three complete sets of chromosomes.

45. Chapter Resource Menu Chapter Diagnostic Questions
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Chapter Resource Menu
Chapter Diagnostic Questions
Formative Test Questions
Chapter Assessment Questions
Standardized Test Practice
biologygmh.com
Glencoe Biology Transparencies
Image Bank
Vocabulary
Animation
Click on a hyperlink to view the corresponding feature.

46. Which symbol is used to represent the
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Chapter Diagnostic Questions
Which symbol is used to represent the
number of chromosomes in a gamete? # x r n A B C D
CDQ 1

47. Name the person known as the father of genetics.
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Chapter Diagnostic Questions
Name the person known as the father of
genetics.
Felix Mendelssohn
Gregor Mendel
Dr. Reginald Punnett
Albert Einstein A B C D
CDQ 2

48. Which term refers to the outward expression of an allele pair?
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Chapter Diagnostic Questions
Which term refers to the outward expression
of an allele pair?
gamete
hybrid
phenotype
genotype A B C D
CDQ 3

49. Segments of DNA that control the production
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Formative Questions
Segments of DNA that control the production
of proteins are called _______.
chromatids
chromosomes
genes
traits A B C D
FQ 1

50. What is the term for a pair of chromosomes
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Formative Questions
What is the term for a pair of chromosomes
that have the same length, same centromere
position, and carry genes that control the same
traits?
diploid
heterozygous
homozygous
homologous A B C D
FQ 2

51. Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.1 Formative Questions
How does the number of chromosomes in gametes compare with the number of chromosomes in body cells?
Gametes have 1/4 the number of chromosomes.
Gametes have 1/2 the number of chromosomes.
Gametes have the same number of chromosomes.
Gametes have twice as many chromosomes. A B C D
FQ 3

52. What is the name for different forms of a
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Formative Questions
What is the name for different forms of a
single gene that are passed from generation
to generation?
alleles
genotypes
phenotypes
traits A B C D
FQ 5

53. Which pair of alleles is heterozygous?
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Formative Questions
Which pair of alleles is heterozygous? RR Rr rr yR A B C D
FQ 6

54. In rabbits, gray fur (G) is dominant to black
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.2 Formative Questions
In rabbits, gray fur (G) is dominant to black
fur (g). If a heterozygous male is crossed with
a heterozygous female, what is the phenotypic
ratio of the possible offspring?
1:1
1:2:1
2:1
3:1 A B C D
FQ 7

55. Which explains how the shuffling of genes
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.3 Formative Questions
Which explains how the shuffling of genes
during meiosis results in billions of possible
combinations?
crossing over
gene linkage
genetic recombination
independent segregation A B C D
FQ 8

56. Two genes on the same chromosome may become separated during meiosis.
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.3 Formative Questions
Two genes on the same chromosome may
become separated during meiosis.
true
false A B
FQ 9

57. What is the term for an organism that has one
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
10.3 Formative Questions
What is the term for an organism that has one
or more sets of extra chromosomes in its cells?
diploid
gamete
hybrid
polyploid A B C D
FQ 10

58. How many chromosomes would a cell have
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Chapter Assessment Questions
How many chromosomes would a cell have
during metaphase I of meiosis if it has 12
chromosomes during interphase? 6 12 24 36 A B C D
CAQ 1

59. Which stage of meiosis is illustrated?
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Chapter Assessment Questions
Which stage of meiosis is illustrated?
prophase I
interphase
anaphase I
anaphase II A B C D
CAQ 2

60. What is the next step for the chromosomes illustrated?
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Chapter Assessment Questions
What is the next step for the chromosomes illustrated?
Chromosomes replicate.
Chromosomes move to opposite poles.
Chromosomes uncoil and form two nuclei.
Chromosomes line up at the equator. A B C D
CAQ 3

61. What is this process called?
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Standardized Test Practice
What is this process called?
fertilization
gamete formation
inheritance
reproduction A B C D
STP 1

62. Standardized Test Practice
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Standardized Test Practice
Before meiosis I, the sister chromatids of this chromosome were identical. What process caused a change in a section of one chromatid?
DNA replication
crossing over
synapsis
telophase A B C D
STP 2

63. At what stage is the chromosome number reduced from 2n to n?
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Standardized Test Practice
At what stage is the chromosome number reduced from 2n to n?
prophase I
metaphase I
anaphase I
meiosis II A B C D
STP 3

64. To which step in this process does the law of segregation apply?
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Standardized Test Practice
To which step in this process does the law of segregation apply?
grows into plant
gamete formation
fertilization
seed development A B C D
STP 4

65. 1/4 1/2 1 For human eye color, brown is dominant and
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Standardized Test Practice
For human eye color, brown is dominant and
blue is recessive. If a husband is heterozygous
and his wife has blue eyes, what is the
probability that their child will have blue eyes?
1/4
1/2 1 A B C D
STP 5

66. Section 1 Vocabulary gene homologous chromosome gamete haploid
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Vocabulary
Section 1
gene
homologous chromosome
gamete
haploid
fertilization
diploid
meiosis
crossing over

67. Section 2 Vocabulary genetics allele dominant recessive homozygous
Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Vocabulary
Section 2
genetics
allele
dominant
recessive
homozygous
heterozygous
genotype
phenotype
law of segregation
hybrid
law of independent assortment

68. Section 3 Vocabulary genetic recombination polyploidy Chapter 10
Sexual Reproduction and Genetics
Vocabulary
Section 3
genetic recombination
polyploidy