1. Memory
Chapter 8

2. Memory Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time.
It is our ability to store and retrieve information.

3. Information Processing
The Atkinson-Schiffrin three stage model of memory includes; 1)Sensory Memory, 2)Short-Term Memory, 3)Long- Term Memory

4. Modifications to the 3 Stage Model
Some information skips the first two stages and enters long term memory automatically.
Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory.
Working Memory – a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

5. Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
Some information (your route to school) is automatically processed.
However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell phone number) requires attention and effort.

6. Automatic Processing
We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the following.
Space – while reading a book, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.
Time – we unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.
Frequency – you effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.

7. Effortful Processing
Committing novel information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook. Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories.

8. Rehearsal
Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition.
Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables
TUV OF
GEK
XOZ

9. Rehearsal
The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day #1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day #2.

10. Memory Effects
Spacing Effect – we retain information better when we rehearse over time.
Serial Position Effect – when you recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.

11. What We Encode Encoding by Meaning
Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with what we already know or imagine.
Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.

12. What We Encode Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.
Showing adverse effects of smoking may be more powerful than simply talking about it.

13. Mnemonics Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.
Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devices in aiding memory.
Remembering the Planets

14. Organizing Information for Encoding
Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories.
Chunking
Organizing items into familiar manageable unit
Phone Numbers
HOMES – Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
Hierarchies

15. Storage: Retaining Information
Sensory Memory – the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information.
Short-Term Memory – activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing.
Working Memory – a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
Long-Term Memory – the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

16. Sensory Memories
The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic
< 1 sec. long

17. Sensory Memory The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.20 40 60 80
Percent Recognized
0.15
0.30
0.50
1.00
Time (Seconds)

18. Working Memory The new name for short-term memory.
Has a limited capacity of 7+/- 2 items.
Duration of about 20 seconds

19. Let’s Test Your Capacity
I’m going to show you a list of letters for 20 seconds.
Let’s see how many you can remember.
Ready…

20. MUTGIKTLRSYP

21. Capacity
Was your total 7 plus or minus 2?

22. Chunking F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M FBI – TWA – CIA – IBM
Chunking – organizing items into familiar, manageable units, this often occurs automatically.
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI – TWA – CIA – IBM

23. Chunking
Try this one.
Ready…

24. Chunking

25. Duration
Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating an individual’s rehearsal.
The duration of working memory is about 20 seconds.

26. Long-Term Memory Essentially has unlimited storage capacity.
The Clark’s Nutcracker can hide, then later locate 6,000 buried pine seeds during winter and spring.

27. Feats of Memory

28. Information Processing
Encoding – the process of information into the memory system.
Storage – the retention of encoded information over time.
Retrieval – the process of getting information out of memory storage.

29. Memory Stores

30. Storing Memories in the Brain
Loftus (1980) reviewed previous research data showing, through brain stimulation, that memories were etched into the brain and found that only a handful of brain stimulated patients reported flashbacks.
Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze.
Kandel & Schwartz (1982) showed that serotonin release from neurons increased after conditioning.

31. Synaptic Changes
Long-Term Potentiation – refers to synaptic enhancement after learning. (LTP)
An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses.

32. Stress Hormones & Memory
Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories.
Flashbulb Memories - clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events.

33. Amygdala- 2 emotion processing clusters
Amygdala- 2 emotion processing clusters. Boost activity and proteins in the memory forming areas.

35. Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories
Explicit Memory – refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.
Implicit Memory – involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what he/she knows.
*Amnesia and the tack.

36. Implicit & Explicit Memory

37. Hippocampus
Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories.

38. Anterograde Amnesia
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M (HM) remembered everything before the operation but cannot make new memories.
Memory Intact
Surgery
No New Memories
*What does his memory consist of now?

39. Implicit Memory
HM is unable to make new memories that are explicit (declarative), but he can form new memories that are implicit (procedural).
HM learned the Tower of Hanoi game after his surgery. Each time he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact that he has already played the game. C B A

40. Cerebellum
Cerebellum – a neural center in the rear of the brain that processes implicit memories.
Amnesia Patient and the tack.
Damage to the Cerebellum eliminates learned reflexes.
*Activity

41. Measures of Memory-Recognition
In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices.
A multiple choice test requires recognition.
Name the Capital of France.
Brussels
Rome
London
Paris

42. Measures of Memory- Recall
In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort.
A fill-in-the-blank question requires recall.
1. The capital of France is ________.

43. Famous People Slides

44. Measures of Memory- Relearning
In relearning, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time.
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite …
Silk
Frog
Ring
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite …
Silk
Frog
Ring
1 day later
It took 10 trials
to learn this list
It took 5 trials
to learn the list

45. Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory.
Fire
Smell
Smoke
Heat FIRE TRUCK
Truck
Red
Water
Hose

46. Priming- awakening associations
Say these letters out loud
S-H-O-P
What do you do at a green light?

47. Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it.

48. Context Effects
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land.

49. Context Effects
After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants most strongly respond when retested in the same context rather than in a different context.

50. Deja Vu Deja Vu means “already seen.”
Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.

51. Moods & Memories
We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current moods (state-dependent memory).
Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues.

52. Vegetables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Teachers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fruits 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

53. Now put them in alphabetical order and rank them from most favorite(1)
to least favorite(10)
Compare your ranking list to your original list.

54. Pollyanna Principle
Pleasant items and events are usually processed more efficiently and accurately than less pleasant ones.

55. “When a feeling was there, they felt as if it would never go; when it was gone, they felt as if it had never been; when it returned, they felt as if it had never gone.”
-Gearge MacDonald,
“What’s Mine’s Mine, 1886

56. Forgetting
An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.
We cannot remember what we do not encode.

57. Encoding Failure
What is the color of the top stripe of the American flag?
What is the color of the bottom stripe? How many red stripes? How many white stripes?
Most wooden pencils are not round, how many sides do they typically have?
In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her torch?
What four words besides “In God We Trust” appear on most U.S. coins?
Red
Red. 7 Red. 6 white
(six)
right
United States of America

58. Storage Decay Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay.
The Forgetting Curve

59. Retrieval Failure
Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed.
Tip of the tongue forgetting is a retrieval failure.
Given a cue – What makes blood cells red?
The subject says – The word begins with H (Hemoglobin)

60. Interference
Learning some new information may disrupt retrieval of other information.

61. Retroactive Interference
Retroactive Interference – the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
Sleep prevents retroactive interference, therefore, sleeping leads to better recall.

62. Proactive Interference
Proactive Interference – the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

63. Motivated Forgetting
Motivated Forgetting – people unknowingly revise their memories.
Repression – a defense mechanism that banishes anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
Sigmund Freud

64. Why do we Forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage.
We filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages.

65. Frederick Bartlett’s Constructive Memory Processes-
Leveling- Material in the story gets simplified, because the teller makes judgments about which details are important.
Sharpening- The teller also makes judgments about what information is important, and highlights or overemphasizes details.
Assimilation- The teller also changes details for a better fit with his her own background or knowledge.

66. Memory Construction
While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent.
Misinformation Effect – incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.
Let’s Try It…

67. Depiction of an Accident

68. Misinformation
Group A – How fast were the cars going when they HIT each other?
Group B – How fast were the cars going when they SMASHED INTO each other?

69. Memory Construction
A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass?
Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

70. Source Amnesia
Source Amnesia – attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined.
Misatribution

71. Children’s Eyewitness Recall
Children’s eyewitness recall can be unreliable if leading questions are posed.
However, if cognitive interviews are neutrally worded, the accuracy of their recall increases.
In cases of sexual abuse, this usually suggests a lower percentage of abuse.
Are memories of abuse constructed?
Many psychotherapists believe that early childhood sexual abuse results in repressed memories.
However, other psychologists question such beliefs and think that such memories may be constructed.

72. Constructed Memories
Loftus’ research shows that if false memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories.
Improving Memories
Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.
Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material.
Make material personally meaningful.
Use mnemonic devices.
Activate retrieval cues – mental recreation.
Recall events while they are fresh.
Minimize interference.