1. PSY 338: Motivation Chapter 9:
Cognitive Consistency & Social Motivation

2. Cognitive Consistency Theory
Group of theories sharing the same assumption that humans have a consistency in their cognitions, attitudes, and behaviors
The idea that change in behavior can motivate a change in attitude, especially when the behavior and attitude are inconsistent with each other
Often an aversive state of tension activating behaviors that are designed to reduce or eliminate the tension
Homeostatic theories

3. Cognitive Consistency Theory
Cognitions form “associative networks”
Associative networks include beliefs, attitudes, and other cognitions
The associations are often unconscious, implicit
Changes in one belief or attitude may produce a “ripple effect” elsewhere in one’s cognitive system

4. Three basic assumptions of consistency theories
People expect, prefer consistency
Individuals strive to maintain psychological harmony among their beliefs, attitudes, behaviors
Inconsistency causes psychological discomfort, tension
“Dissonance” is uncomfortable, may even be accompanied by physiological symptoms
Individuals are motivated to restore cognitive consistency
“Drive-reduction” model
a form of face-saving, identity management
Angelina Jolie replaced her “Billy Bob” tattoo

5. Cognitive Consistency Theory
Sherman & Gorkin (1980)
Procedure
Females who scored high on a feminism scale were set up to fail on a sex-role problem
A control group with similar scores on the feminism scale were not set up in this manner
Then both groups were asked to read a transcript about a sex discrimination case
Their task was to decide who was wrong in the case and make an award

6. Cognitive Consistency Theory
Sherman & Gorkin (1980)
Results
The feminists who experienced dissonance were more likely to find that sex discrimination had occurred and gave much larger awards compared to the control group
Interpretation
The failure of the treatment group to solve the problem induced a state of psychological inconsistency in the feminists
Their decision helped to restore their self-concept as feminists
Threats to one’s self image lead to attempts to bolster, reinforce, or reestablish the threatened attitudes

7. Balance Theory
Heider (1946)
Theory posits that a tendency exists for relationships between people, objects, or both to be balanced
Relationships can be positive (balanced)
Relationships can be negative (unbalanced)
Illustrated basic principles of theory using triadic situations
Situation involving two people and a third object/event/idea
The positive or negative relationship is inside the head of the person
They are motivated to reach balance

8. Problems With Balance Theory
No clear indication of how balance will be restored
Which element will change?
Does not take into account the importance factor
Some relationships are more important than others
Does not give us a way to gauge the degree of the imbalance and is unclear as to how much imbalance is required before behavior is triggered
“Type” idea is employed which critics oppose

9. Cognitive Dissonance
The idea that we try to maintain consistency of or beliefs, attitudes, and opinions with our overt behavior
As long as consistency is maintained, no motivation is triggered
The amount of dissonance created depends upon:
How volitional the decision is
The importance or consequences of the decision
The time, effort, or sacrifice involved in making the decision

10. Creating psychological inconsistency…
Cognitive Dissonance Theory explains what happens when an individual’s beliefs, attitudes, and/or behaviors are incompatible
Above picture illustrates a guilt appeal on the bus bench is designed to induce cognitive dissonance in patrons of this “Gentlemen’s Club”

11. Research on Dissonance
Several research areas illustrate cognitive dissonance
Justification of Effort
We appreciate things more when we work for them
The greater the effort or sacrifice, the greater the dissonance
Induced compliance
External inducements, rewards reduce dissonance
When a person is compelled to do something, little dissonance is aroused because the person can rationalize the action by saying “I had no choice.”

12. Induced Compliance Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) Procedure
Participants performed an excruciatingly boring task – turning pegs in holes
Group 1: Offered $1 to lie to a waiting participant
Group 2: Offered $20 to lie to a waiting participant
Group 3: Control group
Both experimental groups were told to say the study is fun & exciting
Click on picture for video 

13. Induced Compliance Results
When later asked their attitudes toward the boring task:
Those receiving $1 payment had come to see it as more enjoyable
Those receiving $20 hadn't changed their attitudes at all
Festinger & Carlsmith (1959)

14. Induced Compliance Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) Interpretation
$20 provided adequate justification for misleading another student; no dissonance
$1 was insufficient justification, thus arousing dissonance
Changing beliefs about the task reduced the cognitive discomfort for these participants

15. Research on Dissonance
Selective Exposure to Information
Dissonance is aroused when a person encounters information contrary to his or her beliefs.
People engage in selective exposure to avoid dissonant information
Postdecisonal Dissonance
Revaluing your decision after it is made
Leads to more positive feelings, less dissonance

16. Postdecisonal Dissonance
Brehm (1956)
Women rated several products
Later they are told that they could keep one of two of the products they had previously given the same rating to
They then were interviewed after they made their choice
Rating for the chosen item increased; rating for the other item decreased

17. But what if you can still change your mind?
Knox & Inkster (1968)
Bettors were interviewed just before of just after placing their bet on a horse racing event
Ask for their level of confidence
After buying ticket, they were again asked about their confidence
Post-bet group > Pre-bet group
Brownstein, Read & Simon (2004)
Interviewed horse racing bettors at three times before they placed bet; then again after bet was placed
They became more convinced that they would win with every successive interview
“Pre-bet bolstering”
They did not devalue their unchosen alternatives

18. When Prophecy Fails Festinger, Riecken, & Schachter (1956)
Researchers join cult that was predicting end of the world
Their purpose was to observe the cultists’ response when the world did not, in fact, end on schedule
Cognitive dissonance was accurately predicted by the researchers
Efforts were made to reduce it
Click on picture
for full story 

19. Criticisms of Dissonance
Vague, primitive, lacks precision making prediction of whether any two cognitions will conflict in a given individual virtually impossible
Dissonance is not remedied in a specific way –no definitive statement about which particular way will be chosen in a given situation or by a given individual
Alternative explanations have not been ruled out

20. Self-Perception Theory
Bem (1962)
This theory posits that we observe our own behavior much as an outsider might do, then make judgments based on these observations
Self-monitoring process

21. Self-Perception Theory
Bem (1967)
Argued against the interpretation of the Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) experiment
Felt that an outside observer would come to that conclusion; since the observer is not experiencing dissonance and comes to the same conclusion, how can you say the response was due to dissonance?
Felt we might watch ourselves perform the behavior and again come to the same conclusion as the outside observer
Conducted interpersonal replication – same results

22. Dissonance or Self-Perception?
Despite criticisms and alternative explanations, cognitive dissonance theory continues to have support
Motivational state appears to be factor in leading to this behavior
Brain activity while participants are undergoing dissonance are not seen in control participants

23. Social Motivation Social Facilitation
If performance can be individually evaluated, the presence of others will be arousing and can enhance performance

24. Social Facilitation & Inhibition: Coaction & Audience Effects
Triplett (1898)
Triplett, who was a bicycling enthusiast, noticed that cyclists performed better in races than they did when they were paced by motor- driven cycles or when they were timed riding the course alone
Same result when he asked children to wind fishing reels as quickly as possible
He thought that the mere presence of others would improve our performance
Normann Triplett
( )

25. Social Facilitation & Inhibition: Coaction & Audience Effects
Triplett (1898)
Procedures
Had children and teenagers attempt to turn a fishing rod reel at the highest rate of speed until a small flag sewed to the silk band had made four circuits of the four-meter course
Results
All participants performed faster when in competition compared to when alone
Interpretation
Coaction effect led to improved performances

26. Social Facilitation & Inhibition: Coaction & Audience Effects
Zajonc went back and analyzed the research
He noticed that nearly all of the many studies that documented social facilitation studied well-learned responses
Bicycling
Lifting weights
Eating rapidly
Robert Zajonc
( )

27. Social Facilitation & Inhibition: Coaction & Audience Effects
Zajonc (1969)
The type of task was an important determinant to success as well
Was it a well-learned task or was it relatively new?
Arousal of coaction effect seems to help with just the easy tasks

28. Social Facilitation & Inhibition: Coaction & Audience Effects
Zajonc, Heingartner, & Herman (1969)
Procedure
Cockroach placed in a tube with a bright light at one end of the tube
To escape the light, the cockroach had to run down the tube and into a darkened box at the other end of the tube
Both a simple and complex maze was utilized
See next slide 

29. Social Facilitation & Inhibition: Coaction & Audience Effects
Zajonc, Heingartner, & Herman (1969)

30. Social Facilitation & Inhibition: Coaction & Audience Effects
Results
Audience effect seen only in simple maze as it appears to be a factor in the increased cockroaches’ performance
Not seen on the more complex turning task
Simple Maze:
Alone: 41 seconds
Audience: 33 seconds
Complex Maze:
Alone: 110 seconds
Audience: 130 seconds
Interpretation
Type of task is interacting with arousal (Yerkes-Dodson Law applies)

31. Social Facilitation & Inhibition: Coaction & Audience Effects
Michaels et al. (1982)
Procedure
Secretly rated pool players in a hall as above average or below average ability
Then a group of confederates came and stood by their table as they played
Results
The above average players' shot accuracy improved from 71 to 80% accurate, while the below average players slipped from 36 to 25% accurate
Interpretation
Type of task is interacting with arousal (Yerkes-Dodson Law applies)

32. Social Facilitation & Inhibition: Coaction & Audience Effects
Park & Catrambone (2007)
Procedure
Participants did a variety of tasks rotating from one of three conditions
Watched by human
Watched by virtual human
Alone
Actual Virtual Human used in the study

33. Social Facilitation & Inhibition: Coaction & Audience Effects
Park & Catrambone (2007)
Results
No differences found in performances when being viewed by real or virtual audiences
Interpretation
Supported Zajonc’s findings; extended by using the virtual human

34. Social Facilitation & Inhibition: Coaction & Audience Effects
Baumeister & Steinhilber (1984)
Critical games might be a home disadvantage
Researchers suggest it may cause the home team to “choke”

35. Social Facilitation & Inhibition: Coaction & Audience Effects
Criticisms of Arousal Theories
The term arousal is vague; no clear-cut definitions
Distinction of underlying processes between different audience effects (positive, negative) are not clear
Suggestions that all participants in social facilitation experiments feel as if they are being monitored

36. Social Influence
Several powerful influences that the presence of others can have on our individuality and ethical behavior
Conformity
Chang in one’s beliefs or behaviors as a result of real or imagined pressure from a group or individual
Changing one’s behavior to match the responses or actions of others

37. The Chameleon Effect Chartrand & Bargh (1997)
Participant and confederate worked on a task together
Participants mimicked the behavior of the confederate
Rub face
Shake foot

38. Conformity Milgram et al. (1969)
Research confederates congregated and craned their necks to gawk at a window on the 6th floor of an apartment building
80% of all passers-by stopped and gazed upward
Is behavior contagious?

39. Conformity Sherif (1947) Procedure
Researcher asks participant to judge the apparent movement of a stationary light on a wall
Later: One participant and one confederate
Eventually: One participant and several confederates
Results
Over time participants’ estimates conformed to confederates’ estimates
Interpretation
In ambiguous situations, people tend to rely on information provided by others
Muzafer Sherif
( )

40. Conformity Asch’s classic research studies (195os-1960s)
Series of experiments most done with 1 participant and several confederates
Real participant would give their judgment after several confederates had already given theirs
Solomon Asch
( )
Basic Set-up

41. Conformity
Asch Studies
Which of the lines on the left most closely matches line A on the right?
What would you say if you were in a group of 6 others, and all agreed the answer was 2? 1 2 3 A

42. This student keep wiping his glasses 
Asch Studies
This student keep wiping his glasses 

43. Conformity
Asch Studies
When alone, 95% of participants got all the answers correct…
When confronted by the unanimous incorrect majority, participants conformed about 33% of the time…in fact 81% went against their own eyes at least once if the group gave a wrong answer 1 2 3 A

44. Conformity Informational social influence
Some participants said it was because they thought the others must have had better eyesight or be better informed in some way
They were basically utilizing others as a source of information
Distortion of judgment
Normative social influence
Some participants said they didn’t want to look silly or be rejected by the rest of the group
They wanted to “fit in” with the others
Distortion of action
Asch Studies

45. Factors That Affect Conformity Motivation
Degree of Ambiguity
Uncertainty in correct answer should bring out more conformity
Group size
1 confederate: almost no conformity
2 confederates: 12.8% conformity
3 confederates: 33% conformity
4 or more confederates: conformity remains stable at about 33%
Unanimity
Presence of an ally reduces conformity from 33% to about 5%
He found this was the case even in large groups
Asch Studies

46. Criticisms of Conformity Research
Unrealistic laboratory paradigm
People don’t sit around judging the lengths of lines
No incentive to produce the correct answer
Task is not important to them
Historical phenomenon
Generational changes to individualistic society
Asch Studies

47. Addressing the Criticisms: Conformity outside the lab
Mann (1977)
Procedure
People in Jerusalem tend to mill about at bus stop; don’t wait in line
Confederates begin lining up for bus as soon as previous bus departed
Researcher varied the number of confederates from 2-8

48. Addressing the Criticisms: Conformity outside the lab
Mann (1977)
Results
Conformity generally increased as the number of confederates increased
Interpretation
Conformity effects are not limited to the lab setting
# of confederates

49. Addressing the Criticisms: No longer relevant
Neto (1995)
This study aimed at investigating whether conformity in the experimental setting suggested by Asch was particularly related to American culture and less likely to be replicable elsewhere - e.g. in Portugal - as has been suggested more recently
Procedure
Asch's classic conformity and independence experiment was replicated, using women psychology students in a Portuguese university
The original procedure was re-enacted as similarly as possible using a computer program

50. Addressing the Criticisms: No longer relevant
Neto (1995)
Results
Among participants in the experimental condition 59% conformed at least once, 28% yielded three to twelve times
Thus this shows that a degree of conformity to a unanimous peer-group opinion remains observable
Participants reported considerable distress under the group pressure (just as in the original experiment)
Interpretation
Still relevant; no generational change

51. Why do people conform? Asch (1952)
In this early version of the lines experiment, Asch had 16 participants with 1 confederate who gave obvious incorrect answer
Participants laughed at and ridiculed the confederate

52. Compliance Behavior change in direct response to a request
The foot-in-the-door effect
A technique which increases compliance motivation to a large request by first getting compliance to a smaller, related request
The door-in-the-face effect
A technique which increases compliance motivation by beginning with a large request then following up with a lesser request

53. The Foot-in-the-Door Effect
Freedman & Fraser (1966)
Procedure
Group 1
Researcher knocks on door asking people if they would mind if he put up this large, unattractive DRIVE CAREFULLY sign on their front lawn
Group 2
Researcher knocks on doors asking people to sign petition to support legislation that promotes safe driving; two weeks later different researcher asks about the unattractive DRIVE CAREFULLY sign

54. The Foot-in-the-Door Effect
Freedman & Fraser (1966)
Results
Significantly more in Group 2 (initial small, then later large request) are motivated to comply

55. The Foot-in-the-Door Effect
Interpretation
Bem’s self-perception theory seems to apply here
Agreeing to small request has apparently changed we perceive ourselves; later we are more likely to agree to the large request because we are motivated to engage in behavior that is consistent with our self-perception

56. The Door-in-the-Face Effect
Cialdini et al. (1975)
Procedure
Group 1: Rejection-Moderation Condition
Undergrads were asked if they would agree to work two hours per week for two years as a volunteer counselor at the County Juvenile Detention Center
Later were asked if they would be willing to chaperone a group of juvenile delinquents on a 2-hour trip to the zoo
Group 2: Exposure Control Condition
Undergrads listened to both requests and were then asked if they would do either one
Group 3: Control Condition
Undergrads just asked if they would be willing to chaperone a group of juvenile delinquents on a 2-hour trip to the zoo

57. The Door-in-the-Face Effect
Cialdini et al. (1975)
Results
Significantly more in Group 1 (rejection-moderation condition) agreed to take the kids to the zoo
Group 1: 50%
Group 2: 25%
Group 3: 17%
Interpretation
The motive of reciprocal concessions lead to so many more in Group 1 complying to request; contrast effect not involved here as had be suggested previously

58. Obedience
The behavior change that comes in response to a direct order from an authority figure
Milgram (1963)
Original study included 40 male college students as the participants
Several other versions were conducted by Stanley Milgram who was a professor at Yale University
Stanley Milgram
( )

59. Milgram (1963)
Procedure 
Shock Generator 

60. Milgram (1963)
Deception used in several ways

61. Results of Milgram’s Obedience Experiment
Adapted from S. Milgram "Behavioral Study of Obedience" from Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Used by permission of Alexandra Milgram.

62. Why a motive to obey? Results
In the original study, 65% went all the way and pulled the XXX 450 volt lever
Replications produced similar results
Interpretation
Detached Responsibility
Deindividuation
Milgram’s Obedience Experiments

63. Bystander Intervention
Latané & Darley (1968)
These researchers felt that social psychological processes were at work
Diffusion of Responsibility (“The Bystander Effect”)
The tendency for each group member to dilute personal responsibility for acting by spreading it among all

64. 38 “Silent Witnesses”

65. A Model of Intervention
Latané & Darley (1970)
Posit that there are five factors in the helping process
Notice the situation
Interpret as emergency
Accept responsibility
Decide how to help
Decide to act and provide help

66. A Model of Intervention
Procedures
In this study, researchers pumped smoke into a lab while students filled out a questionnaire
Some students were left alone
Some with 2 other real participants
Some with 2 other confederates who pretended nothing was wrong
Latane & Darley (1968): Smoke Study

67. Percentage Reporting Smoke
Results
Latane & Darley (1968) 80
Percentage Reporting Smoke 60 40 20
Alone
With 2 other real subjects
With 2 calm confederates
Interpretation
Being around others made people less likely to interpret smoke as an emergency; maybe less likely to pay attention to things in our environment
Pluralistic Ignorance: We don’t want to embarrass ourselves by declaring an emergency when there isn’t one, so we remain calm and expressionless

68. Factors That Affect Helping Behavior
Darley & Batson (1973)
Procedure
Students at Princeton Theological Seminary
Pretest personality measure
Half would give talk on Good Samaritan; the other half were told that they would be asked questions concerning employment prospects for seminary students
Group 1: Some participants put in the “early” condition
Group 2: Some participants put in the “late” condition
Group 3: Some participants put in the “on time” condition

69. Is there time enough to be a Good Samaritan?
Procedure
On their way to the next building they passed a poorly dressed man slumped in a doorway, head down, eyes closed, not moving…
As the participant moved past him, the man coughed twice and began groaning

70. Apparently, not… Results Interpretation
Darley & Batson’s (1973)
Results
Interpretation
Time constraints have huge effect on helping behavior

71. What motivates helping?
Altruistic vs. Egoistic Debate
Some psychologists believe there is no such thing as pure altruism; others disagree

72. Credits Some slides prepared with the help of the following websites:
commfaculty.fullerton.edu/.../consistency%20and%20dissonance.ppt