2. The Origin of Eukaryotic Cells

3.  With lots of perplexities and guesses, researchers did many experiments to bring it to light.

4. Beginning in the mid-1970s, Carl Woese and his colleages at the University of Illinois began a series of studies on different organisms, comparing the nucleotide sequence of the RNA molecule that resides in the small subunit of the ribosome. This RNA—which is called the 16S rRNA in prokaryotes or the 18S rRNA in eukaryotes—was chosen because it is present in large quantities in all cells, it is easy to purify, and it tends to change only slowly over long periods of evolutionary time, which means that it could be used to study relationships of very distantly related organisms.

5. Their experimental process: Purify the 16S RNA from a particular source Subject the preparation to an enzyme, ribonuclease, digest the molecule into short fragments, called oligonucleotides. Two-Dimensionl Electrophoresis to separate. Then it produced a two-dimensional “fingerprint” as show to you.

6. Figure 27.

7. They found that the sequence of this chloroplast rRNA molecule was much more similar to that of the 16s rRNA found in ribosomes of cyanobacteria that was to its courterpart in the ribosomes from eukaryotic cytoplasm. This findings provided strong evidence for the symbiotic origin of chloroplasts from cyanobacteria.

8. In 1977, Woese and George Fox published a landmark paper in the study of molecular evolution. They compared the nucleotide sequences of small-subunit rRNA that had been purified from 13 different prokaryotic and eukaryotic species. The results was shown in Table 1.

10. The value in the table reflects the similarity in sequence between rRNAs from the two organisms being compared; the higher the number, the more similar the two sequences. The sequences could be clustered into three distinct groups. Group I is 1-3,and it contains only eukaryotes. GroupII is 4-9,and it contains the “typical” bacteria. The third one is 10-13 and contains several species of me- thanogenic (methane--producing) bacteria.

11. The results suggested that the members of these three groups represent three distinct evolutionary line that branched apart from one another at a very early stage in the evolution of cellular organisms. Then consequently those organisms were assigned three different kingdoms, which were named the Urkaryotes, Eubacteria, and Archaebacteria.

12. In 1989,two published reports rooted the tree of life and suggested that the archaebacteria were actually more closely related to eukaryotes than they were to eubacteria. This was based on the comparasions of the amino acid sequences of several proteins present in a variety of different prokaryotes, eukaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplasts. Then, there was the phylogenetic tree came to the same conclusion.

14. Up until 1995, phylogenetic trees of the type shown upon were based primarily on the analysis of the gene encoding the 16s-18s rRNA. Questions about the origin of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells came into sharp focus between 1995 and 1997 with the publication of the entire sequences of a number of prokaryotic genomes, both archaebacterial and eubacterial, and the genome of a eukaryote---the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

15. Researchers could compare the sequences of hundreds of genes simultaneously. After comparasion we can see that the genes in archaebacteria whose products are involved with informational processes (chromosome structure, transcription, translation, and replication) were very different from their counterparts in eubacterial cells and, in fact, resembled the corresponding genes in eukaryotic cells.

16. Analysis of eukaryotic genomes have produced similar evidence of a mixed heritage. Studies of the yeast genome show unmistakable presence of genes derived from both archaebacteria and eubacteria. There are several possible explanations for the mixed character of the eukaryotic genome. Eukaryotic cells may have evolved from archaebacterial ancestors and then picked up genes from eubacteria with which they shared environments.

17. In addition, some of the genes in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell are clearly derived from eubacterial genes that have been transferred from the genome of the symbionts that evolved into mitochondria and chloroplasts. A number of researchers have taken a more radical position and proposed that the eukaryote genomre was originally derived from the fusion of an archaebacterial and a eubacterial cell followed by the integration of their two genomes.

18. But now not everyone can accept an idea of the real origin of eukaryotic. May there are many questions yet, so the subject needs more researchers do hard work to reveal the truth.