1. AP Human Geography Test Review
Political Geography

2. States
State – any area with a defined territory that exercises its sovereign control over areas both inside and outside its borders
Earth is divided into about 200 countries (states)
In past 100 years, number of states has increased by over 100
Territorial Organization – states organized into a geographically based hierarchy of local government agencies
Serve the functions of (1) efficiently delegating administrative function in what may otherwise be large and unwieldy area, (2) can allocate resources through local agencies that may be more in touch with the needs of the people in their jurisdiction, and (3) usually give their local territory some degree of autonomy (ability to enact laws, police their lands, and tax local citizens)
Commonwealth – territory that has established a mutual agreement with another state for the benefit of both parties
Colony – territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely independent
Control of the colony varies
Colonialism – effort by one country to establish settlements and to impose its political, economic, and cultural principles on a territory

3. States - Colonies European states established colonies for 3 reasons
European missionaries established colonies to promote Christianity
Colonies provided resources that helped the economy of European states
European states considered the number of colonies to be an indicator of relative power
Summarized as “God, gold, and glory”
Imperialism – control of territory already occupied and organized by an indigenous society
United Kingdom had largest empire
“Sun never set” on the British Empire
Colonial practices of European states varied
France attempted to assimilate colonies into French culture – not so successful
Britain created different government structures and policies depending on the territory
Decentralized approach helped to protect diverse cultures, local customs, and educational systems
Most colonies made peaceful transition to independence
Nearly all in Pacific Ocean or Caribbean Sea
Puerto Rico is most populous remaining colony
Commonwealth of the United States
4 million residents
France’s French Polynesia, Mayotte, and New Caledonia; the Netherlands’ Netherlands Antilles; and the United States’ Guam and U.S. Virgin Islands are colonies with population between 100,000 and 300,000
Least populated colony – Pitcairn Island (United Kingdom) – 47 people
Britain created different government structures and policies depending on the territory
Decentralized approach helped to protect diverse cultures, local customs, and educational systems
Most colonies made peaceful transition to independence

4. States - Colonies
Colonialism – practice of establishing political dominance over a people for economic, political, and territorial gain
Organic Theory – created by political geographer Friedrich Ratzel
State was like a living entity that constantly needed to grow to thrive – states constantly need new territory to meet the demands of their ever-growing population
Religious Colonialism – conducted by numerous religions
Christianity and Islam
Economic Colonialism- quest for wealth
European colonists sought wealth (gold, furs, etc.)
Colonies expected to provide resources for the home country needed to sustain itself
Self-Determinism – power of a people to establish their own government the way that they see it
Former colonies would rather see chaotic conditions ruled by member so their own country than peaceful conditions ruled by colonial power

5. Types of Empires The Land Empire – involves conquest by force
Armies attack, pillage, and plunder their way through another land, taking resources by force
Ex. Spanish employed empire tactics in Mexico
The Sea Empire – used sea power to control area
Settlements established along coast, and excursions into the interior brought loot back to these settlement, where ship would be waiting to take resources back to home country
The Settlement Empire – intended to stay long time
Once settlement established, colonists sent resources back to home country
Colony expected to become independent and eventually pay back home country
Primarily used by the British and French

6. States - Government Types of Government
Unitary State – places most power in the hands of central government officials
Unitary government systems works best (in theory) in nation-states with few internal cultural differences
In reality, multinational states use unitary systems so the values of on nationality can be imposed on others
Some African countries (Rwanda, Ghana, and Kenya) have done so on ethnic group could dominate another
Eastern European countries used unitary systems go promote the diffusion of Communist values
Federal State – allocates strong power to units of local government within the country
Governments bestow autonomous powers upon their local territories
Local governments posses more authority to adopt their own laws
Ability to empower different nationalities – especially if they live in different regions
Boundaries can be drawn by regional ethnicities
More suitable for larger states – national capital may too remote to effectively govern
Size of federal states varies
Larger states include Russia, Canada, India, and U.S.
Belgium is federal state = two cultural groups
How to delegate authority in a federalist country has crucial implications for everything from tax collection , to the use of natural resources
Unitary State
Requires effective communications with all regions, so smaller states are more likely to adopt
Especially common in Europe
Federal State
Local government agencies may have overlapping functions, and several agencies may have jurisdiction over the same geographical areas – agencies must work together to delegate services and authority efficiently
Some cities have consolidated their governments into limited number of agencies

7. Electoral Geography
Reapportionment (redistricting) – Boundaries separating legislative districts redrawn periodically to ensure each district has approximately same population
Boundaries of U.S. House of Representatives redrawn every 10 years – following the census
Most European countries use independent commissions to redraw district boundaries
Most U.S. states use the state legislature – giving the political party in power to redraw districts
Gerrymandering – process of redrawing legislative boundaries for the purpose of benefiting the party in power
Three types of gerrymandering
“Wasted Vote” – spreads opposition supporters across many districts, but in the minority
“Excess Vote” – concentrates opposition supporters into a few districts
“Stacked Vote” – links distant areas of like-minded voters through oddly shaped boundaries

8. Gerrymandering Florida & Georgia
Title:
Gerrymandering.
Caption:
Florida's Republican-controlled state legislature gerrymandered Congressional district boundaries to concentrate Democratic voters using a combination of "wasted vote" and "stacked vote" strategies. Although Republican voters outnumbered Democrats slightly in Florida, the gerrymandering resulted in electing 18 Republicans and only seven Democrats in 2002 and Gerrymandered boundaries are especially clear on the southeast coast, where Republicans were able to win three of six districts in a region that has a substantial Democratic majority. Meanwhile, in Georgia Democrats tried to "stack" and "waste" Republican votes, but Republicans ended up winning eight of 13 seats in 2002 and seven in 2004.
Fig. 8-11: State legislature boundaries were drawn to maximize the number of legislators for Republicans in Florida and Democrats in Georgia.

9. Gerrymandering – drawing voting districts to benefit one group over another.
Majority-Minority districts drawn so that the majority of the population in the district is from the minority.

10. Nation and Nation-State
Nation – Term encompassing all the citizens of a state – refer to tightly knit group of people possessing bonds of language, ethnicity, religion, and other shared cultural attributes/identity
Many people becoming more loyal to their nation, rather than their state
Ex. Al-Qaeda – left behind loyalty to the states in which they are citizens, pledging their allegiance to Al-Qaeda – forming a nation
Usually nations are located within the borders of a state
Examples – Koreans, Hmong, Kurds, Basques, Flemish, Walloons, and Zulus
Many want their own state, but conflict can arise with two nations competing a geographic area
Nation-State – recognized political unit wherein territorial state coincides with the area settled by a certain group of people – corresponds with particular ethnicity that has been transformed into a nationality
Examples = Japan and Denmark
Nation
Hmong (Vietnam), Kurds (Iraq, Turkey, Iran), Basques (Spain), Flemish and Walloons (Belgium), Zulus (South Africa)
Nation – State
Japan – are ethnic Japanese – mainly due to monolithic culture Japan very nationalistic in which its culture encourages loyalty to the state at the expense of individual gain
Denmark – speak Danish as primary language – students learn other languages to compete in the global market

11. Sovereignty
Sovereignty – ability of a state to regulate their own internal and external affairs
Some continue to struggle with sovereignty
Kurds – one of largest nationalities in the world without a state
Located in Turkey, northern Iran, and northern Iraq with some in Armenia and Azerbaijan
Most Kurds have own language and practice Islam
Basques – independent group in Pyrenees Mountains
Majority live in Spain with some in Andorra and southwestern France
Basques have their own language (Euskara) and desire to have their own nation-state called Euskal Herria
Flemish – live in the north of Belgium
Official language is Flemish (Common Dutch) and religion (Roman Catholic)
Distinct from Walloons in language (French) and religion (Protestant)
Desire own nation-state called Flanders
Zulu – live in eastern South Africa
Apartheid – white minority ruled South Africa, Zulus forced to occupy low status – suffering discrimination in all aspects of life
Zulus have their own language (isiZulu) desire to have own homeland (KwaNdeebele)
Palestinians – live in the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and Golan Heights of Israel
Palestinians fled to other countries after Israel created in 1948
Most practice Islam, speak Arabic – desire to create state called Palestine
(PLO) Palestinian Liberation Organization separatist group
Hmong – Vietnam = allied with the U.S. during Vietnam War – when U.S. left, Hmong left to deal with vindictive political regimes in Laos and Vietnam (forced to be refugees)

12. Antarctica National Claims
Fig. 8-2: Antarctica is the only large land mass that is not part of a state, but several countries claim portions of it.
Title:
National claims to Antarctica.
Caption:
Antarctica is the only large landmass in the world that is not part of a sovereign state. It comprises 14 million square kilometers (5.4 million square miles), which makes it 50 percent larger than Canada. Portions are claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom; claims by Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom are conflicting. In 1959 these seven countries, plus Belgium, Japan, South Africa, the Soviet Union, and the United States, signed a treaty suspending any territorial claims for 30 years and establishing guidelines for scientific research. In 1991, 24 countries agreed to extend the treaty for another 50 years, established new pollution control standards, and banned mining and oil exploration for 50 years.

13. Political Organization of Space
Governments usually create organizations to assist with their interactions with other countries
Embassies – offices represent U.S. interests to the leadership of other countries
Ambassadors – lead officials representing the U.S. in other countries
Consulates – secondary offices that usually deal with economic issues as well as the granting of visas to enter their home countries
Other political geography terms
Satellite states – under the control of the Soviet Union – created a cultural wall (Iron Curtain)
Iron Curtain – divided democratic, capitalist Western Europe from totalitarian, communist Eastern Europe
Shatterbelt regions – regions caught up in the conflict between two superpowers
Boundaries often changed – Vietnam and Korea
Buffer state – country that lies between two other states, but remains neutral in the conflict between them
Mongolia between China and Soviet Union
Supranational Organization – separate entity composed of three or more states that forge an association and form an administrative structure for mutual benefit in pursuit of shared goals
Supranational Organization
United Nations, Warsaw Pact, (NATO) North Atlantic Treaty Organization, (OPEC) Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

14. Geopolitical Theories
Heartland Theory – Halford MacKinder wrote “The Geographical Pivot of History”
Suggests that whoever owns Eastern Europe and Western Asia has the political power and capital to rule the world
Eastern Europe contained one of the richest agricultural regions in the world – sustain a large population
Also contained abundant raw materials (coal) needed to develop strong military and industrial base
Adolph Hitler believed in this theory – which is why he attempted to invade/conquer Eastern Europe
Rimland Theory – Nicholas Spykman wrote in “The Geography of Peace” – was known as the “godfather of containment”
Believed in forming alliances is necessary to keep Heartland in check (no individual country could contain by itself
Rimland theory would control the sea
Domino Theory – adopted by U.S. in 1960s – 1970s
When one country experiences rebellion or political disunity, other countries around it will also experience turmoil as a result, leading to a domino effect of political instability
Established in response to the communist incursions that had been occurring around the world
Irredentism – the attempt by one country to provoke coups or separatist movements in another country
Heartland Region
Rimland Theory
Trap the Heartland in a sense by its own geography
Rimland would use the oceans to control the Heartland, engaging in a battle between land and sea
Irredentism
U.S. has done when sending radio transmissions into another country to promote benefits of capitalism and democracy
Ex. from Florida to Cuba

15. Rimland Theory
Heartland Theory
- Heartland is also known as the pivot area

16. Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces
Centripetal Forces – forces that tend to unite a state
Includes strong national institutions, sense of common history, and a reliance on strong central government
Examples include flags, anthem, other acts of patriotism
Centripetal forces can be positive and negative
Positive when supporting or pulling a nation together
Negative when nationalistic ideas place individual nations above all others (usually with militaristic regimes, power hungry leaders, and racist ideologies)
Centrifugal Forces – forces that pull a state apart
Include ideas of regionalism, ethnic strife, and territorial disputes
Include language, religion, ethnicity, and ideology

17. Political forces and Ideologies
Balkanization – political process by which a state may break up into smaller countries
Occurs when enclaves develop with their own ethnic identities, or when central governments increasingly devolve administrative authority to their constituent territories
Former Soviet Union, former Yugoslavia
Devolution – Giving up of power by the central or federal government to the different regions of the country
The process whereby regions within a state demand and gain political strength and growing autonomy at the expense of the central government
Devolutionary pressures result in increased autonomy for a region. If strong enough, these devolutionary pressures may result in complete balkanization
Supranationalism – method of extending state borders through the assistance and/or establishment of other organizations to further economic and/or political cooperation
Ex. European Union (EU)
United into one organized unit for the purpose of increasing individual strength through collective efforts
Democratization – transition to a more democratic political government
Existence of competitive election that are free, regular, and fair
Three waves of democratization
Countries whose attempts to Balkanize that have failed include: Bosnia, Kashmir, Nigeria, Sri Lanka, Kurdistan, Iraq
Democratization –
First wave gradually developed over time
Second wave occurred after Allied victory in World War II and continued into the 1960’s – decolonization of the globe
Third wave is in the modern world – defeat of dictatorial or totalitarian rulers from South America and Eastern Europe some of Africa

18. Ethnocultural Devolutionary Movements
Eastern Europe -
Devolutionary forces since the fall of communism

19. Immanuel Wallerstein’s World-Systems Theory:
The world economy has one market and a global division of labor.
Although the world has multiple states, almost everything takes place within the context of the world economy.
The world economy has a three-tier structure.
Construction of the World Economy
Capitalism – people, corporations, and states produce goods and services and exchange them in the world market, with the goal of achieving profit.
Commodification – the process of placing a price on a good and then buying, selling, and trading the good.
Colonialism – brought the world into the world economy, setting up an interdependent global economy.

20. Three Tier Structure Core Periphery Semi-periphery
Processes that incorporate higher levels of education, higher salaries, and more technology
* Generate more wealth in the world economy
Periphery
Processes that incorporate lower levels of education, lower salaries, and less technology
* Generate less wealth in the world economy
Semi-periphery
Places where core and periphery processes are both occurring. Places that are exploited by the core but then exploit the periphery.
* Serves as a buffer between core and periphery