1. Types of Boundaries Frontier – geographic zone where no state exercises power. Example: France and England fought over frontier areas in NA in the French and Indian War. All but disappeared from the earth, with only Antarctica and the Arabian Peninsula left with significant neutral zone areas.

2. Types of Boundaries Boundaries can be categorized into two types: –Physical – easy to see, so they often make good boundaries. Examples: Mountains, Deserts, and rivers. –Cultural – ethnic differences, especially those based on language and/or religion. Example: Pakistan from India in 1947.

3. Federal & Unitary Systems States may be categorized into three types according to their internal geographic distribution of power: Unitary System – one that concentrates all policymaking powers in one central geographic place. Nation-state evolved in Europe – democracy had not yet developed; governments ruled by force. Most European gov’ts = highly centralized. As a result, most European govts today remain unitary states.

4. Federal & Unitary Systems Confederal System – spreads power among many sub-units (such as states), and has a weak central govt. Most attempts have not lasted. Modern govt. of Switzerland has very strong sub-govts., and comes as close to a modern confederation as exists. Failed confederation = US under the Articles

5. Federal & Unitary Systems Federal System – divides the power between the central government and the sub-units. Developed in several colonial areas, including the US, Canada, and Australia. Possible b/c the cultures were new, no single cities dominated the new countries, and in all three examples, the land space is large, setting the stage for the development of regional govts. Allows for diverse needs and preferences, but also features a central govt. that is strong enough to keep countries from falling apart.

6. Political Systems All political systems fall on a continuum from the most concentrated amount of power to the least. Most countries have unitary systems, although some are experimenting with devolution – the transfer of some important powers from central govts. to sub-govts. Unitary SystemsFederal Systems Confederal Systems

7. Centripetal vs. Centrifugal Both forces affects all nation-states. Centripetal forces – bind together the people of a state, giving it strength. One of most powerful is nationalism – identities based on nationhood. Centrifugal forces – destabilize the govt. and encourage the country to fall apart. A country that is not well-organized or governed stands to lose the loyalty of its citizens.

8. Gerrymandering Named after Elbridge Gerry – Governor of Massachusetts – 1812 Approved of a redistricting map that gave the Democratic-Republicans a disadvantage. Redistricting map resembled a salamander for Federalist boundary. Newspaper – “Call it a Gerrymander!”

9. Gerrymandering Wasted Vote – spreads opposition supporters across many districts but in the minority. Excess Vote – concentrates opposition supporters into a few districts. Stacked Vote – links distant areas of like- minded voters through oddly shaped boundaries.