1. An Age of Modernity and Anxiety, 1894 - 1914
Chapter 24
An Age of Modernity and Anxiety,

2. Toward the Modern Consciousness: Developments in the Sciences
European Intellectual Community
Prior to WWI – prominent thinkers had a sense of confusion and anxiety about an impending catastrophe
Brought on by the growth of nationalism and technology
The Certainty of Science
Based on ideas from the Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment
Late 19th century - scientists questioned established scientific theories
Marie Curie ( ) and Pierre Curie ( )
Marie won Nobel Prizes in physics & chemistry
Discovered radiation (Marie ironically died from leukemia)
Atoms – small worlds with protons & electrons
Their experiments spawned a new theme in physics that studied the disintegrative processes within atoms

3. Possible Test Question
Just prior to World War I, the European intellectual community was marked by
Boundless enthusiasm, confidence, and optimism about the future.
A sense of confusion and anxiety leading to feelings of imminent catastrophe.
Total complacency on the part of a self-satisfied mass public.
Grim determination among nationalists to adopt and enforce international peace treaties.
A retreat into scientific materialism.

4. Max Planck (1858-1947) Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
Energy radiated discontinuously (irregular packets of quanta)
Formation of quantum theory
Raised questions about the subatomic realm of the atom & the building blocks of the material world
New physicists began to challenge and ultimately invalidate some of the work of Newton
Albert Einstein ( )
Theory of relativity – space & time are not absolute
Four dimensional space-time continuum
Energy of the atom

5. Possible Test Question
The quantum theory of energy developed by Max Planck raised fundamental questions about the
Structure of stars.
Accepted medieval theories of chemical reaction.
Subatomic realm of the atom and the basic building blocks of the material world.
Safe transmission of electrical energy for powering modern economies.
The electro-dynamics of moving bodies.

6. Toward a New Understanding of the Irrational
Friedrich Nietzsche ( )
Glorifies the irrational
Claimed humans at the whim of irrational life forces
“God is dead”
Critique of Christianity
Felt Christianity weakened Western creativity
Concept of the superman
Superior intellectuals must rise up and lead the masses
Rejected democracy, social reform, & universal suffrage
Henri Bergson (1859 – 1941)
French philosopher who accepted rational thought but thought it was incapable of arriving at truth.
Georges Sorel (1847 – 1922)
Advocated revolutionary socialism through violence

7. Possible Test Question
Friedrich Nietzsche
Supported the Theory of Relativity.
Felt reform was needed in a healthy Catholic Church.
Believed that Christianity had deeply undermined the creative power of western civilization.
Was an advocate of Darwin’s theories.
Was a major influence on Freud and the latter’s theories of psychoanalysis.

8. Sigmund Freud & Psychoanalysis
The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900
Foundation of psychoanalysis
The Unconscious
Human behavior was influenced by the unconscious and by inner desires
Id, Ego, and Superego
Id – center of unconscious (pleasure principle)
Ego – reason, coordinator of life (reality principle)
Superego – moral values of society
The superego served to force the ego to curb the unsatisfactory drives of the id.
Dreams were the repression of unconscious desires
Oedipus Complex for men (Electra for women)
Desire for the parent of the opposite sex

9. Possible Test Question
According to Sigmund Freud, behavior was
Largely determined by genetics.
Shaped by one’s environment.
Determined by one’s unconscious and by inner drives of which people were generally unaware.
Shaped by one’s socio-economic status as Marx had argued.
Always predictable because of a “will to power.”

10. Social Darwinism and Racism
Herbert Spencer ( )
British philosopher who applied Darwin’s ideas to society
Societies are organisms that evolve through time by struggling with their environment.
Progress came from the “struggle for survival”
Nationalism and Racism
Friedrich von Bernhardi (German general)
Thought war was necessary for culture
Evolutionary role “survival of the fittest”
Houston Stewart Chamberlain ( )
The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, 1890
Claimed Aryans were the creators of Western culture
Modern day Germans were the pure successors of “Aryans”
Aryan must be prepared to fight for Western Civilization

11. Possible Test Question
Social Darwinism was
Applying the ideas of Darwin to society.
An effort to explain the problems of society by psychological means.
An explanation, sociologically, of Darwin’s biological ideas.
Advocated by Nietzsche.
Condemned by Freud.

12. Possible Test Question
According to Houston Stewart Chamberlain, the Aryans were
The degenerates of Western Civilization exemplifying the vicious German combination of social Darwinism, nationalism, and racism.
Conquerors of India.
The “fit” who would “survive” Darwin’s world of devolution.
A fictitious people who were destined to rule the Slavic people of the east.
The real creators of western culture.

13. The Attack on Christianity
Challenges to Established Churches
Scientific inquiry
Modernization – migration to the city weakened the base of the church set in village cultures
New political movements – governments reestablished ties with the churches after 1848 Revolutions
Anticlericalism – backlash against union of church & state after 1848 revolutions
Biblical higher criticism
Ernst Renan wrote Life of Jesus
Questioned the historical accuracy of the Bible
Denied the divinity of Jesus

14. Response of the Churches
Rejection: Pope Pius IX, Syllabus of Errors
Rigid stand against nationalism, socialism, religious toleration, & freedom of speech & press
Adaptation: modernism
New view on the Bible as a book of moral ideas
Encouraged Christians to get involved in social reform
Catholic Church condemned Modernism in 1907
Compromise: Pope Leo XIII
Permitted the teaching of evolution as a theory
De Rerum Novarum (1891)
Asserted that socialism was Christian principle
upheld right to private property
condemned evils of capitalism
urged followers to join unions & social reform groups (attempt to reconnect with the working class)

15. Possible Test Question
In his encyclical De Rerum Novarum (1891), Pope Leo XIII
Endorsed Marxist conceptions of materialism.
Asserted that much in socialism was Christian in principle.
Ordered Catholics to turn away from all forms of political activity.
Began to question the necessity of the sacraments.
Condemned “modernism” in all its manifestations.

16. Naturalism & Symbolism in Literature
Artistic movement that was a continuation of realism but more pessimistic
Émile Zola (1840 – 1902) – used Darwin’s ideas to set his stories against the backdrop of urban slums & coalfields
Themes of alcoholism & depression
Best example of naturalistic literature
“I have simply done on living bodies the work of analysis which surgeons perform on corpses.”
Leo Tolstoy ( )
War and Peace – set in the time of Napoleon’s invasion of Russia
Realistic portrayal of military life & human character
Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821 – 1881)
Maintained that the major problem was the loss of spiritual belief
Used psychology & moral observation to examine human nature
Crime & Punishment & The Brothers Karamazov
Symbolism
Objective knowledge of the world was impossible
Art should function for its own sake not society

17. Possible Test Question
The greatest difference between naturalism and realism in literature was
Realism dealt more with themes like human suffering.
Naturalism was more popular than realism.
In general, naturalism was more pessimistic than realism.
Realism was simply a continuation of naturalism.
In general, realism was more pessimistic than naturalism.

18. Modernism in the Arts Impressionism Post-Impressionism
Use of light and color
Left the studio & went out to paint what they saw
Camille Pissarro ( )
Beginning of impressionist art
Urged artists to paint nature, people and their surroundings
Capture light, running water, emotion
Berthe Morisot ( )
Female artist who used lighter colors and flowing brush strokes
Post-Impressionism
Kept the Light and color of impression and combined it with structure and form
Shifted from objective reality to subjective reality
Viewed as the beginning of modern art
Paul Cezanne ( ) – Woman with Coffee Pot
Vincent van Gogh ( ) Starry Night

19. Monet - Impression, Sunrise

20. Morisot – Young Girl by the Window

21. Van Gogh’s Starry Night

22. Possible Test Question
In art, modernism found its beginnings in the work of Pissarro called
Surrealism.
Abstract Realism.
Baroque.
Expressionism.
Impressionism.

23. Modernism in Music The Search for Individual Expression Photography
Cubism: Pablo Picasso ( ) Les Demoiselles d’Avignon
Use of geometric designs to re-create reality
Abstract Expressionism: Vasily Kandinsky ( ) Abstract painting
Modernism in Music
Included:
Attraction to the exotic, nationalist themes, folk music and the lure of the primitive
Edvard Grieg (1843 – 1907)
Scandinavian composer who used folk music to present nationalist themes
Claude Debussy (1862 – 1918)
Impressionist musician who used music to evoke the emotion of poetry
Igor Stravinsky ( ) Rites of Spring
Classic example of modernism in music
Use of pulsating rhythm, sharp dissonances, and sensual dancing caused a riot at its debut in Paris
Sergei Diaghilev ( )
Russian ballet director who worked with Stravinsky

24. Picasso - Les Demoiselles d’Avignon

25. Kandinsky – Composition VIII

26. Possible Test Question
At its premier, Igor Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring, now considered as a classic example of modernism in music and ballet,
Drew great public acclaim as a modern masterwork.
Inspired many authors to write poems using the music.
Caused a great riot at the theater by the audience because of its sharp dissonance, and blatant sensuality.
Restored audiences’ faith in music as a rational and soothing art.
Was ignored when first performed and only became recognized as a classic several decades later.

27. Politics: New Directions and New Uncertainties
The Movement for Women’s Rights: Demands of Women
Sought reforms in family & marriage laws
Secure divorces
Equal control of property for married women
Teaching was the first profession open to women
Women were not allowed to go to medical school
Women who were Pioneers in Nursing
Amalie Sieveking ( )
Founded the Female association for the Care of the Poor and Sick in Hamburg, Germany
Florence Nightingale ( )
Nurse in the Crimean War
Clara Barton ( )
Nurse in American Civil War

28. Growing demands of suffragists
Emmeline Pankhurst ( )
Leader of the women’s suffrage movement in England
Founded the Women’s Social and Political Union along with her daughters
Took a radical approach to gaining media attention for their cause
Publicity – Pelted gov. officials with eggs, chained themselves to lampposts, burned rail cars, hunger strikes
Emily Davison threw herself in front of the king’s horse (killing herself) to draw attention to women’s suffrage
Peace movements
Bertha von Suttner ( )
Founded a peace movement in Austria to protest the growing arms race in the 1890s
The New Woman
20th century women that supported new ideologies & sought equal rights
Maria Montessori and Bertha von Suttner are both examples of “new women”
Maria Montessori ( )
Attended medical school in Rome
New teaching materials
Began the system of Montessori schools
Natural & spontaneous education system that allowed children to learn at their own pace

29. Possible Test Question
The leader of the women’s suffrage movement in England was
Louise Michel.
Babette Josephs.
Emmeline Pankhurst.
Octavia Hill.
Violet Asquith.

30. Jews in the European Nation-State
By the end of the 19th century, Jews were emancipated in most countries with some restrictions
Allowed them to get involved in politics and move out of the ghetto
Anti-Semitism
Revival of hatred towards Jews
Portrayed as the murders of Jesus
Strongest anti-Semitism was in Eastern Europe (Germany, Austria, & Russia)
Persecution in Eastern Europe
Pogroms (massacres) in Russia
Emigration
Jews moved to U.S., Canada & Palestine
The Zionist Movement
Zionism
Planned migration to Palestine to form a Jewish state
Theodor Herzl ( ) leader of the Zionist Movement
The Jewish State, 1896
Advocated Jews returning to Israel (Palestine) to form a Jewish state
Gained support from Jewish bankers
Slowly, Jews began to emigrate to Palestine

31. Palestine

32. Possible Test Question
Theodor Herzl, the leader of the Zionist movement,
Advocated the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine.
Advocated the development of separate Jewish communities in European cities.
Argued that Jewish assimilation into western European society would only be complete when Jews renounced their religious beliefs.
Argued that living conditions for Jews were better in eastern Europe than in western Europe.
Demanded that war be declared against the Ottoman Empire.

33. The Transformation of Liberalism: Great Britain & Italy
Working Class Demands
Caused Liberals to move away from ideals (like laissez-faire)
Trade Unions
Advocate “collective ownership” and other controls
Unions grow in power
Strike to demand a minimum wage
Fabian Socialists
Stressed for workers to use their right to vote to capture the House of Commons and pass legislation to help the laboring class
They were not Marxists
They wanted social revolution through democratic means
Britain’s Labour Party
Fabian Socialists & trade unions joined forces to form the Labour Party

34. Italy David Lloyd George (1863-1945) Giovanni Giolitti (1903 – 1914)
Abandons laissez-faire
Backs social reform measures
In order to implement the Liberal Party’s social reforms, he curtails the power of the House of Lords
National Insurance Act, 1911
Sick pay, unemployment
Beginnings of the welfare state
Later legislation provided a small pension plan & worker’s compensation
Tax increases implemented on the wealthy class
Italy
Giovanni Giolitti (1903 – 1914)
Prime Minister of Italy
Transformismo (policy of Giolitti)
Transformism – political groups were transformed into new government coalitions by political & economic bribery
Giolitti’s policy eventually make Italian politics corrupt & unmanageable

35. Possible Test Question
In order to implement the Liberal Party’s social reform program, David Lloyd George radically curtailed the power of the
Army and navy.
Bank of England.
Monarchy.
House of Commons.
House of Lords.

36. France: Travails of the Third Republic
Dreyfus Affair (1895 – 1906)
Evidence of renewed anti-Semitism in Europe
Dreyfus was a Jewish captain in the French military
Accused and found guilty of being a spy, sentenced to life on Devil’s Island
More evidence revealed that the spy was a Catholic officer
Military refused to try the Catholic officer
Dreyfus was eventually pardoned
Rise of Radical Republicans
Determined to make France more democratic
Targeted the army and the Catholic Church
Purge of anti-republican individuals and institutions
1905- separation of church and state

37. Possible Test Question
The event which exemplified renewed anti-Semitism in France in the late nineteenth century was the
Boulanger coup.
Sorel uprising.
Dreyfus affair.
Zola capitulation.
The fall of the Third Republic.

38. Growing Tensions in Germany
William II ( )
Ran Germany as a authoritarian, conservative, military state
Military and industrial power
By 1914, Germany was the strongest military and industrial power in Europe
Pan-German League (radical right-wing politics)
Advocated:
Strong German Nationalism
Imperialism to united different social classes at home
Anti-liberal policies
Anti-Semitic policies

39. Austria-Hungary: The Problem of the Nationalities
Parliamentary agitation for autonomy of nationalities
Granting universal male suffrage only increased the problem of governing multiple ethnic groups
Growth of German nationalism from a German minority group caused problems in Austria
Magyar (Hungarian land owning class) agitation for complete separation of Hungary from Austria
New Hungarian parliamentary leader kept Magyars from rising up and worked to keep the Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary) intact

40. Industrialization and Revolution in Imperial Russia
In 1890s, government sponsored massive industrialization
By 1900 the fourth largest producer of steel
Development of working class
Development of socialist parties
Marxist Social Democratic Party, Minsk, 1898
The Revolution of 1905
Russo-Japanese War,
Russia’s defeat led indirectly to the Revolution of 1905
“Bloody Sunday” January 9, 1905
Transport system wasn’t working due to the war, which led to food shortages
Workers went to the Winter Palace to present a list of grievances to the Tsar
Royal troops fired on the peaceful protest killing hundreds
Workers called for strikes and organized unions
General strike, October 1905
Under pressure, Nicholas II granted civil liberties and a legislative body, the Duma
Curtailment of power of the Duma, 1907 

41. Possible Test Question
Russia’s disastrous defeat in the Russo-Japanese war indirectly led to
The dismissal of Count Witte.
The loss of all of Siberia to Japan.
The enlargement of the Duma.
An unsuccessful coup by the Tsar.
The Revolution of 1905.

42. The Rise of the United States
Shift to an industrial nation,
World’s richest nation and greatest industrial power
9 percent own 71 percent of wealth
American Federation of Labor
Included only 8.4 percent of industrial labor
Lacked real power due to low membership
Progressive Era
Reform
Meat Inspection Act, Pure Food and Drug Act
Woodrow Wilson,
Income tax and Federal Reserve System

43. The Growth of Canada Dominion of Canada
Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick – 1870
Manitoba, British Columbia – 1871
Lack of real unity due to French Quebec
William Laurier, 1896, first French Canadian prime minister
Made peace between French Canadians and the rest of Canada
Helped industrialize Canada
Led to hundreds of thousands of immigrants

44. Canada, 1871

45. The New Imperialism Causes of the New Imperialism
Competition among European nations for prestige
Social Darwinism and racism
Religious humanitarianism, “White man’s burden”
Economic motives and military bases
The Scramble for Africa
South Africa
Cecil Rhodes ( )
Diamond and gold companies
Takes the Transvaal (Dutch Region)
Attempts to overthrow the neighboring Boer Government
Boer War,
British defeat Boers (Dutch) and offer them a lenient peace
Union of South Africa, 1910

46. Possible Test Question
The Boer War was fought by the British in
Australia.
China.
Zimbabwe.
Botswana.
South Africa.

47. The Scramble for Africa (cont)
Portuguese and French Possessions
Mozambique
Angola
Algeria, 1830
West Africa and Tunis
The British in Egypt
Belgium and Central Africa
Leopold II,
International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa, 1876
Exploration of the Congo
French reaction is to move into territory north of the Congo River
German Possessions
Bismarck was against colonialism, he knew it helped win elections
South West Africa; Cameroons; Togoland; East Africa
Impact on Africa
By 1914, almost all of Africa was carved up between European powers

48. Map 24.1: Africa in 1914

49. Imperialism in Asia Japan and Korea Southeast Asia
The British in Asia
James Cook to Australia,
British East India Company
Empress of India bestowed on Queen Victoria, 1876
Russian Expansion
Siberia
Reach Pacific coast, 1637
Korea and Manchuria
China
British acquisition of Hong Kong
European rivalry and the establishment of spheres of influence
Japan and Korea
Matthew Perry opens Japan,
Southeast Asia
British and French control
American Imperialism
US and the Spanish-American War
Controlled Pacific Islands for military bases to trade with Asia

50. Responses to Imperialism
Africa
New class of educated African leaders
Resentment of foreigners
Intellectual hatred of colonial rule
Political parties and movements
China
Boxer Rebellion, , Society of Harmonious Fists
Chinese nationalists who tried to kick foreigners out by force
Brutally put down by armies from around the world
Fall of the Manchu dynasty, 1912, founding of the Republic of China
Sun Yat-sen ( )
Overthrew the Manchu dynasty – China remained weak
Japan
Mutsuhito (1867 – 1912) – young emperor who westernized Japan
Meiji Restoration
Created democratic political & financial institutions but remained authoritarian in practice
Imitation of the West – sent Japanese abroad to get a western education
India
Costs and benefits of British rule
Brought order & introduced technology but subjugated the people
Indian National Congress (1883)
Moderate, educated Indians began to seek self government

51. Possible Test Question
The Meiji Restoration in Japan
Successfully accomplished the expulsion of all foreigners from the country.
Created a political system democratic in form but rigidly authoritarian in practice.
Concentrated on the reestablishment of feudal principles of decentralized government and native Japanese values.
Sent many Japanese abroad to be educated in the ways of the west and adopted many western reforms in political and military organization.
B and D.

52. Map 24.2: Asia, 1914

53. International Rivalry and the Coming of War
The Bismarckian System
Tried to preserve European peace
Wanted to isolate France (still mad over Franco-Prussian War)
The Balkans: Decline of Ottoman Power
Russia and Austria-Hungary both want territory
Congress of Berlin (1878)
Limited the size of the new Bulgarian state and humiliated Russia in front of the European powers
New Alliances
Triple Alliance, 1882 – Germany, Austria, Italy
Reinsurance Treaty between Russia and Germany, 1887
Bismarck didn’t want France and Russia to become allies
Warned of a possible two front war
Dismissal of Bismarck, 1890 by William II

54. Possible Test Question
The basis of the Bismarckian System was
The acquisition of a huge overseas empire.
The isolation of France through a series of military alliances.
An enhanced civil service.
The creation of a German war college.
The incorporation of Austria-Hungary into the German Empire.

55. New Directions and New Crises
Emperor William II and a “place in the sun”
Aggressive policy of expansion
Ended the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia
Military alliance of France and Russia, 1894
Triple Entente, 1907 – Britain, France, Russia
Triple Alliance, 1907 – Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy

56. Crisis in the Balkans,
Austria annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1908
Serbian protest, Russian support of Serbia
Primary antagonists in the Balkans region were Serbs and Austrians
First Balkan War, 1912
Balkan League (Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, & Greece) defeats the Ottomans
Second Balkan War, 1913
Couldn’t agree on division of Ottoman provinces of Macedonia & Albania
Greece, Serbia, Romania, and the Ottoman Empire attacked and defeated Bulgaria
Serbia’s ambitions
London Conference

57. Possible Test Question
The primary antagonists in the Balkans region were
Serbs and Austrians.
Russians and French.
English and Germans.
Serbs and Croats.
Russians and Serbs.

58. The Balkans in 1878

59. Map 24.3: The Balkans in 1913