1. Motivation and Emotion

2. Motivation – a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
Motivational Concepts
Instinct
Drives and incentives
Arousal
Motives
Motivation – a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

3. 5 Theories of Motivation
Instinct Theory
Drive Theory
Incentive Theory
Arousal Theory
Humanistic Theory

4. Instinct Theory
Click on the fish to watch it’s instinctual behavior.
Instinct Theory – genetically predisposed (unlearned) behaviors
Example:
Salmon swimming upstream to lay eggs
Instinct – a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
Infant rooting and sucking
Genes predispose species-typical behavior
Names rather than explains behaviors
Robins build nests
Bears hybernate
Infant sucking

5. Drive Reduction Theory
Drive Reduction Theory - physiological need creates a drive (state of tension) that motivates us to satisfy the need
Need - a physiological state that usually triggers motivational arousal
Example – lack of body fluids/need for water
Drive – An aroused or activated state that is often triggered by a physiological need
Example - Thirst
Key Ideas
Our behavior is motivated by BIOLOGICAL NEEDS.
Goal is Homeostasis - tendency to maintain a balanced internal state.
According to the drive theory of motivation, people are motivated to take certain actions in order to reduce the internal tension that is caused by unmet needs. For example, you might be motivated to drink a glass of water in order to reduce the internal state of thirst. This theory is useful in explaining behaviors that have a strong biological component, such as hunger or thirst. The problem with the drive theory of motivation is that these behaviors are not always motivated purely by physiological needs. For example, people often eat even when they are not really hungry.
*Homeostasis literally means staying the same
*Temperature – if too hot we perspire to lower body temp to maintain homeostasis
Temp, blood pressure, heart rate

6. Primary versus Secondary drives
Primary drives – innate
Examples: thirst, hunger
Secondary drives – drives learned by conditioning
Example: Money
Primary are unlearned (pushed by biological needs and drives)
Secondary are learned (fear, anxiety, companionship, security, achievement (pulled by environment)

7. Incentive Theory
Incentives - positive or negative environmental stimulus that lure or repel us
Incentive theory acts when an external stimulus pulls you in a certain direction
Example – What motivates you to come to AP Psych class?
The grade?.
What motivates you to eat chocolate chip cookies?
The smell (incentive theory),
Drive theory acts by an internal state pushing you in a specific direction.
Example: What motivates you to eat a chocolate chip cookie?
Lack of food/need for food (drive theory)
Pushed by drives and pulled by incentives
Incentives – positive or negative stimuli that lure or repel us.
*The role of learning in motivation is obvious from the influence of incentives – connect to skinner’s concept of reinforcement ie. Reinforcement is designed to encourage or lure a behavior. Punishment is designed to discourage or repel a behavior
*when there is both a need and an incentive, we feel strongly driven
For each motive – how is it pushed by our inborn physiological needs and pulled by incentives in the environment.
Going to work to get paid
*The influence of personal and cultural experience on our wants and desires can most clearly be seen in the influence of incentives on motivation.
Internal push = the need (lack of body fluid)
External pull = incentive (cold water)
Victims of a famine will often eat unappetizing and nutritionally poor foods simply to relieve their constant hunger. Their behavior is best explained in terms of drive-reduction theory.
Incentive theory - The smell of chocolate chip cookies draws you into the kitchen to eat some

8. Arousal Theory We are motivated to seek an optimum level of arousal.
Yerkes-Dodson Law – performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point. When levels of arousal become too high, performance decreases
Optimum level of performance occurs when stress is moderate
Example: You will perform better on your AP Psych test if there is a moderate level of stress and arousal…to much and you will not do well
Puzzle Demo – three different puzzles of varying degrees of difficulty at three different centers p. 330 Teacher Addition)
The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people take certain actions to either decrease or increase levels of arousal. When arousal levels get too low, for example, a person might watch and exciting movie or go for a jog. When arousal levels get too high, on the other hand, a person would probably look for ways to relax such as meditating or reading a book. According to this theory, we are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, although this level can vary based on the individual or the situation.
Yerkes Dodson Law - It predicts an inverted U-shaped function between arousal and performance. A certain amount of arousal can be a motivator toward change (with change in this discussion being learning). Too much or too little change will certainly work against the learner. You want some mid-level of arousal to provide the motivation to change (learn).
Shawn loves to snowboard. He enjoys performing aerial tricks after launching off high jumps. The higher in the air he goes and the farther he travels, the better. Shawn’s motivation to snowboard is explained by Optimal arousal
*Need for an infant to explore
Motivation to watch horror films

9. Humanistic Theory of Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow said we are motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal.
Driven to satisfy the lower level needs first.
need for physical safety must be met before city dwellers will be motivated to form close friendships with fellow citizens.
most basic or lowest-level need in Maslow's hierarchy of human motives includes the need for food and drink
adequate clothing must be met before we are preoccupied with satisfying our need for self-esteem.
self-transcendence needs motivate people to strive for transpersonal meaning
Maslow referred to the needs for purpose and meaning that lie beyond the self as self trancendence needs
Financial satisfaction is more strongly predictive of well-being in poor nations than in wealthy ones. This fact would most clearly be anticipated by Maslow’s Hierarchy
Home-life satisfaction is more strongly predictive of well-being in wealthy nations than in poor ones. This fact would be most clearly anticipated by hierarchy of needs.

10. Motivation of HUNGER Ancel Keys study on conscientious objectors
Ancel Keys – creator of K rations fed 36 male volunteers just enough to maintain initial weight, then for six months cut food levels in half.
Results:
Men conserved energy – listless and apathetic
After dropping weight rapidly, body weight s eventually stabalized at about 25% below starving weights
Psych effects – men became food obsessed – talked about food, daydreamed about food, collected recipes, read cookbooks. Lost interest in sex and social activities
Ancel Keys study on conscientious objectors

11. Physiology of Hunger
Washburn’s studies showed hunger was partially related to the stomach.
But those with their stomachs removed still feel hunger.
Washburn found that hunger pangs accompany feelings of hunger – he had stomach contractions whenever he felt hungery
Rats whose stomachs have been removed continue to eat regularily

12. Biological Basis of Hunger
Hunger does NOT come from our stomach.
It comes from our…
Brain
What part of the brain?
The Hypothalamus

13. Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Lateral Hypothalamus
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Brings on hunger by triggering release of orexin (hunger arousing hormone)
When stimulated it makes you hungry.
When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again.
Depresses hunger
When stimulated you feel full.
When lesioned you will never feel full again and become …
Stimulate lateral hypothalamus – begin eating
Increase levels of orexin trigger hunger
Destruction of the ventromedial hypothalamus of a rat is most likely to become extremely fat
When a rat's blood sugar level decreases, the lateral hypothalamus releases the hunger-triggering hormone orexin.

14. How Hypothalamus works: Two Theories
Set Point
Hypothalamus acts like a thermostat to maintain a certain weight range.
Lateral or ventromedial hypothalamus activated as needed
Examples:
After losing 30lbs, Susan began to put the weight back on
Leptin
Leptin is a protein produced by bloated fat cells.
Hypothalamus senses rises in leptin and will curb eating and increase activity.
In addition to producing orexin, the hypothalamus monitors levels of the body's other appetite hormones.
Above set point – hunger decreases and energy expenditure increases
Heredity influences body type and setpoint
Setpoint – point at which a person’s weight thermostat is set. When body falls below this weight and increase in hunger and lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the weight loss
After losing 25 pounds, Shelby found that he began to put the weight back on.
Bmr – resting rate of energy expenditure
The concept of a set point best illustrates an explanation of motivation in terms of homeostasis
A drop in basal metabolic rate is most likely to result from semistarvation diet
Some researchers prefer the term settling point to set point because the typical body weight of an adult is influenced by environment and biological factors
When an organism's weight falls below its set point, the organism is likely to experience a(n) increase in hunger and a(n) decrease its basal metabolic rate (energy expenditure).

15. Basil Metabolic Rate
BMR- minimum caloric requirement needed to sustain life in a resting individual
amount of energy (measured in calories) expended by the body to remain in bed asleep all day!
Weight falls below set point, hunger will increase and BMR will decrease
Weight goes above set point, hunger will decrease and BMR will increase

16. Body Chemistry and the Brain
Appetite hormones
Ghrelin – secreted by stomach hunger arousing hormone
Obestatin – secreted by stomach suppresses appetite
PYY – secreted by digestive tract: suppresses appetite
Leptin – protein secreted by fat cells that diminishes the rewarding pleasure of food
Ghrelin – hunger arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach. Gastric bypass seals off part of the stomach so the stomach produces less ghrelin, lessening appetite
Obestatin sends out fullness signal that suppresses appetite
PPY – secreted by digestive tract decreases hunger
Leptin - secreted by fat cells – decreases the reward pleasure of food
The secretion of ghrelin stimulates appetite, and the secretion of obestatin suppresses
appetite.
Feelings of hunger are suppressed at least temporarily by the hormone PPY
Leptin, a hunger-dampening protein, is secreted by fat cells

17. Body Chemistry Glucose – form of sugar in blood
Insulin - hormone that converts glucose to fat.
When glucose levels drop- hunger increases.
Hyperglycemia (diabetes) – glucose too high, don’t produce insulin to convert glucose to fat
Hypoglycemia – glucose too low, need carbs
Increases in the hormone insulin lead to decreasing blood glucose levels
Blood glucose levels are regulated by secretions of insulin by the pancreas.
Increases in orexin increase hunger, whereas increases in glucose decrease hunger.

18. Rats become very hungry when they experience
Elevated levels of obstatin
Reduced levels of ghrelin
Elevated levels of orexin
Reduced levels of estrogen
Elevated levels of testosterone 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

19. Which of the following is a hunger-suppressing hormone secreted by the stomach?
Orexin
Ghrelin
Obestatin
Insulin
glucose 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

20. An increase in, an increase in A decrease in, a decrease in
When an organism's weight increases above its set point, the organism is likely to experience a(n) ________ hunger and a(n) ________ its basal metabolic rate.
An increase in, an increase in
A decrease in, a decrease in
An increase in a decrease in
A decrease in, an increase in
An increase in, a stabilization in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

21. Psychology of Hunger Eating carbs decreases tension and anxiety
Serotonin increases with diet high in carbs – reduces stress

22. Psychology of Hunger Dog Mice Wine
Amnesia patients will eat 20 minutes after just eating a meal
TASTE
Carbs – boost serotonin = calming effect
Preference for sweet and salty tastes - universal and genetic
Highly salty – learned
Garcia Effect - aversion for foods that make us sick
Taste preferences are cultural and adaptive
Dog, rat meat, horse meat, camel eye, sparrow
Repeated exposure increases appreciation for new tastes
Neophobia – dislike for novel things is adaptive
Spices in hot climate
Nausea during pregnancy
People's preferences for sweet tastes are universal, and their preferences for excessively salty tastes are learned
violent illness that follows our eating of a particular food is likely to influence our taste preferences. This illustrates that taste preferences are influenced by learned experiences.
Fried Frog Legs

23. Ecology of Eating
Social Facilitation – when we’re around others we eat more
Unit Bias – We eat more served in larger portion sizes

24. Although Jan appears to be underweight, she is afraid of becoming fat and consistently restricts her food intake. Although Gene appears to be overweight, he enjoys eating and always eats as much as he wants. Explain how their different reactions to food might result from (a) differences in their inner bodily states and (b) differences in their reactions to external incentives.
Students should discuss the potential impact of “internal bodily states” such as set point and basal metabolic rate on the different eating behaviors of Jan and Gene. Students should also discuss at least one of the psychological influences on eating, such as unit bias, taste preferences, cultural norms about body size (e.g., cultural ideal of thinness), and neophobia.

25. Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa
Characterized by binging (eating large amounts of food) and purging (getting rid of the food).
Higher than usual childhood obesity
Binge-eating disorder – spurts of excessive overeating followed by remorse (no purging)
Characterized by overeating and vomiting
hose who engage in spurts of excessive overeating, followed by remorse—but do not binge, purge, fast, or exercise excessively—are said to have binge-eating disorder
Childhood sexual abuse has been ruled out as a factor in eating disorders
Identical twins share eating disorders meaning genetic relationship
Mass media influences eating disorders

26. Anorexia Nervosa
Starve themselves to below 85% of their normal body weight.
See themselves as fat.
Vast majority are woman, but not all
Families are high achieving and protective.
Live in cultures where thin bodies are idealized
Characterized by an obsessive fear of becoming obese

27. Causes of Eating Disorders
Sex abuse – ruled out
Genetic – Identical twins share
Culture – idealizes thinness
Childhood obesity – bulimia
High achieving and protective families – anorexia
Gender differences
Women more likely to perceive themselves as overweight
9/10 women said they would rather have a perfect body a perfect body than have a mate with a perfect body
6/10 men prefered mate with perfect body
Impossible standard of Barbie – 5’7””

28. Obesity and Weight Control
Historical Reasons:
Fat helps body through periods when food is scarce
In developed nations old rule is dysfunctional
Obesity = BMI of 30+
Life expectancy
In developing nations – obesity signals affluence and social status
US govt. guidelines = 25 or less BMI
BMI is calculated by :
Weight in pounds X.45/ (inches/39.4)squared
Calculate your own BMI – why might it be a good measure of obesity – doesn’t just consider weight; why not – doesn’t account for other factors such as metabolism, blood pressure, cholesterol levels and muscle mass which are all important factors in determining obesity.
US – 34%, Australia – 54%, Canada 49, France 42
Life expectancy – heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, gallstones, arthritis, and certain types of cancer

29. Obesity
Body fat is important for many body functions including brain processing, and reproductive health.
Need fat to experience puberty and continue to be reproductively healthy
Increased risk for diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthrites, certain cancers
New Research has link obesity in women to Alzeihmers later in life

30. Obesity Risk of death rises with extremely high or low BMI
Type I diabetes – juvenile – insulin dependent, require consistent monitoring of blood glucose levels
Type II – adult onset – results from lifestyle choices such as inactivity, poor diet

31. The Social Effects of Obesity
Weight discrimination
Psychological effects of obesity
25% increase in depression and anxiety
Weight bias is especially strong against women
Weight discrimination is greater than race and gender discrimination
When people's images on a video monitor are widened to make them look fatter, observers perceive them as less sincere and less friendly
In one experiment, professional actors played the role of either normal-weight or overweight job applicants. Research participants' willingness to hire the applicants revealed more discrimination for overweight women than men

32. The Physiology of Obesity
Fat Cells
Typical adult 30-40M
Obese – 75M (swell to 2-3X normal size then divide)
Still have more but smaller fat cells and slower metabolic rates if lose weight
What determines body fat? – Number and size of fat cells.
Typical adult = 30-40M
Obese = up to 75M, can swell to 2-3 X normal size then divide or trigger immature fat cells to divide. Still have more fat cells even if loose weight
Once become fat, require less food to maintain weight – fat has a lower metabolic rate than muscle.
When lose weight below previous set point– persons hunger increases and metabolism decreases - body adapts to starvation by burning off fewer calories
Bray’s study – after 7 days on a 3500-calorie diet, obese patients were given only 450 calories a day for next 34 days – body weight dropped only 6% and then leveled off bcs metabolism dropped 15%
No matter how carefully people diet, they never lose fat cells
Fat cells increase in numbers as a result of overeating patterns

33. Genetics & Obesity Body weights resemble biological parents
Gene FTO identified doubles risk
Identical twins have similar weights
+.74 correlation
Obese parents = obese children
3X boy 6X girl

34. Environmental Factors & Obesity
Sleep loss
Levels of leptin fall, ghrelin and orexin rise
Social influence
Obese friends = obesity
Food consumption and activity level
TV viewing habits
Children and adults who skimp on sleep are more vulnerable to obesity
Social influence – people most likely to become obese when a friend bcm obese
Food consumption and activity – higher metabolism in teens bcs bodies expend more energy growing, when growth stops (between 18-20) many people tend to gain weight
Freshman 15 = lower levels of exercise when enter college
Mexico – 1/ ; no 7/10
Environmental changes
Higher fat, higher sugar diets, expending fewer calories
New WHO obesity charter – asks business to reduce advertising of fatty sugary foods to children and commits governments to increasing the availability of healthy foods and roadways that promote cycling and walking

35. Losing Weight Realistic and moderate goals
Minimize exposure to tempting foods
Don’t starve all day
Attitudinal changes
Undertake programs that modify their life-style and ongoing eating behavior
Given more variety people consume more
Alcohol leads to the urge to eat

36. Research on fat cells indicates that
they are destroyed by sustained dieting.
their number is genetically determined and is not influenced by eating patterns.
they increase in number as a result of adult overeating patterns.
their number remains fixed after adolescence.
they decrease in number due to genetic predispositions. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

37. A variant of a gene called ________ nearly doubles the risk of becoming obese.
PYY
BMI
FTO
HPV
PET 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

38. Sexual Motivation Interplay of internal and external Stimuli
Genes way of preserving and spreading themselves
2 important studies contributed to our knowledge of sexual motivation
Kinsey Studies
Masters and Johnson

39. Kinsey’s Studies
Confidential interviews with 18,000 people (in early 1950’s).
Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female
Scale of sexuality….0 to 6 where 0 is exclusively heterosexual and 6 homosexual and 7 is asexual.
Click on Kinsey to see the movie trailer.
Kinsey analyzed data on the frequency with which women participate in various types of sexual activity and looked at how factors such as age, social-economic status and religious adherence influence sexual behavior. Comparisons are made of female and male sexual activities. Kinsey's evidence suggested that women were less sexually active than men in all aspects of sexual life but that they were still more sexual than traditional views allowed
By the time the book on female sexuality was published, it appeared that Kinsey seemed to feel that women and men are more alike in the biology of their sexuality than he had previously thought, and that both men's and women's sexuality seemed shaped, not merely repressed, by social and cultural forces.
The publications astounded the general public and were immediately controversial and sensational. The findings caused shock and outrage, both because they challenged conventional beliefs about sexuality and because they discussed subjects that had previously been taboo.
1948.
Estimated 10% of pop was homosexual
seven-category Kinsey Scale system was used to describe human sexuality 5 describing some amount of homosexuality
Problems with study Two main problems cited were that significant portions of the samples come from prison populations and male prostitutes, and that people who volunteer to be interviewed about taboo subject are likely to suffer from the problem of self-selection (people self select themselves into the pop.)
Never the less Kinsey is cited as having changed public perception of sexuality

40. Masters and Johnson Study
Click on Masters and Johnson to see a more detailed explanation of their research.
William Masters and Virginia Johnson (1960s) set out to explore the physiology of sex.
382 females and 312 males.
After their research was done they ran an institute that claimed to turn gay people straight.

41. Sexual Response Cycle 4 stages of sexual responding
Excitement Phase
Plateau Phase
Orgasm
Resolution Phase
Includes refractory period – man is incapable of another organsm
Master’s and Johnson Study – 4 phases
Physiological response
Excitement phase – genital areas become engorged with blood; women’s vagina expands and secretes lubricant, breast nipples may enlarge
Plateau – breathing, pulse, blood pressure increase penis becomes fully engorged and some fluid may appear; vaginal secretions increase
Orgasm – muscle contractions all over body; women’s org. facilitates conception by positioning uterus to receive sperm and drawing sperm further forward—feeling is same for both sexes
Resolution – engorged blood vessles release accumulated blood
refractory period – men incapable of another orgasm
Findings
female orgasm increases the likelihood of conception.
enough sperm may be released prior to male orgasm to enable conception.
During the resolution phase of the sexual response cycle, people are most likely to experience a rapid decrease in physiological arousal if just experienced orgasm
finding supports the belief that the experience of orgasm is the same for both sexes - Experts could not reliably distinguish between descriptions of orgasm written by men and women.
Refactory period - time span after orgasm during which a male cannot be aroused to another orgasm.
In a complete sexual response cycle plateau phase precedes orgasm

42. Hormones and Sexual Behavior
Effects of hormones
Development of sexual characteristics
Activate sexual behavior
Estrogen
Sex hormones secreted in greater amounts by females
female sex characteristics
Peaks during ovulation increasing receptivity- “in heat” (non-humans), in humans sexual desire rises slightly during ovulation
Testosterone
Sex hormones secreted in greater amounts by males
women more responsive to testosterone than non-human females
loss of ovaries = decrease in testosterone and sex drive
Male sex characteristics in fetus and puberty
Rises in men with social interaction
Castrated rats and men lose sexual desire
Effects of hormones
Direct the physical development of male and female sex characteristics
Activate sexual behavior (especially in nonhummans)
Estrogen – female secretion indicates sexual receptivity
Testosterone – male secretion more constant
Hormones loosely influence sexual behavior ; sexual desire rises slightly during ovulation
Women differ from other mammals in that they are more responsive to testosterone levels than estrogen levels (if women’s testosterone drops due to removal of ovaries or adrenal glands, sexual desire may drop)
Men’s testosterone levels may rise with social interaction
Secretion of the female hormones, the estrogens, peaks during ovulation
women's sexual interests are somewhat influenced by the phases of their menstrual cycles.
Women's sexual receptivity differs from that of nonhuman female mammals in being more responsive to testosterone levels than to estrogen levels.
female mammals' sexual receptivity peaks at the time of ovulation.
With the removal of the ovaries, a woman's natural testosterone level drops.
adult males who suffer castration experience a decline in their sex drive.
Male sex offenders lose much of their sexual urge when voluntarily taking Depo-provera

43. Psychological Factors in Sexual Motivation
External Stimuli
Erotic Materials
more active Amygdala in males
Women exhibit nearly as much arousal
More likely to hurt women if women depicted as enjoying
Devalue partners
Imagined stimuli
Dreams – Can contain sexual imagery
Sexual Fantasies
Both sexes, but men more often, more physically and less romantically
Sex is not a need, but a desire unlike hunger. Sex drive can be suppressed, but hurger can’t be.
External stimuli – erotic material; can have negative impact – women being sexually coerced and enjoying it; increase male viewers willingness to hurt women; find ave. women less attractive
Imagined stimuli – brain is most significant sex organ; can influence sexual arousal and desire
Genital arousal occurs in all types of dreams (stage?)

44. Levels of Analysis for Sexual Motivation

45. Teen Pregnancy Ignorance Minimal communication about birth control
Guilt related to sexual activity
Alcohol use
Mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity
If communicate with parents and partners, more likely to use contraception
Guilt – may reduce attempts at birth control
Sexually active teens are typically alcohol using teens; less likely to use contraceptives
Mass media – 15 sex act/hr on TV; partners usually unmarried, with no romantic relationship and few communicate concern about birth control or STDs
More sexual content observes more likely to have sexually permissive attitudes, and early intercourse.

46. Sexually Transmitted Infections
Statistics of STIs
Teen abstinence
High intelligence
Religious engagement
Father presence
Participation in service learning programs
xxx
2/3 of new infection in people under 25; teen girls especially vulnerable yr olds = 40% had STIs
High intelligence – appreciate possible negative consequences & more focused on future achievements
Religious – reserve for marriage
Father - absence linked to teen pregnancy
Service learning – as tutors or teachers aids
Declining teen birth rates since 1991
HPV leading cause of genital warts and cervical cancer
Rates of teen sex similar in western and L.A. countries

47. Sexual Orientation
An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own gender or the other gender.
Heterosexual
Homosexual
Sexual orientation statistics – 3-4% men; 1-2% women
Erotic plasticity – women more likely to feel bisexual attraction, more changeable than men in sexual orientation
Cultures vary in attitudes toward homosexuality – US 50% say never justified, Chili 32%, Nigeria – 98%
Heterosexuality has prevailed and homosexuality has survived in all cultures
Stats – 3-4%men, 1-2%women (US Census 2000 – 2-3% of population is gay) Less than 1% bisexual
Sexual orientation is very persistent and difficult to change
Become aware of homosexuality during early adolescence – more likely to attempt suicide
Women’s sexual orientation is less strongly felt and potentially more fluid and changing than men’s

48. How is Sexual Orientation Determined
There has been NO evidence that sexuality is socially determined.
Kids raised by gay parents are no more likely to be gay that if they were raised by hetero parents.
Indicates it is likely biologically determined.
Environmental conditions are similar between heterosexuals and homosexuals

49. The Brain
Simon LeVay - cluster of cells in hypothalamus that is larger in heterosexual men.
Right hemisphere larger in heterosexual men, and lesbian women
Differences are very early postnatally if not prenatally
Originate at about the time of birth or even before
Not a mental disorder, but adolescent homosexuals are at increased risk for attempting suicide

50. Fraternal Birth Order Effect
men who have older brothers are somewhat more likely to be gay (about 1/3 more likely for each additional older brother)
Blanchard study – maternal immune defense response to foreign substances produced by male fetus
preventing fetus brain from developing in male-typical pattern.

51. Prenatal Environment Hormonal levels in the prenatal environment
elevated rates of homosexual orientation in identical and fraternal twins
exposure to hormone levels typical for female fetus predisposes the person to be attracted to males (whether male or female)
Fingerprint ridges are higher in right hand than left in heterosexual males

52. Genes Genes – homosexuality does run in families
identical twins more likely to share a homosexual orientation
Studies on female fruit-flies – single gene determines sexual orientation and behavior
Sheep injected with testosterone during pregnancy…female offspring show homosexual behavior

53. Biological Correlates of Sexual Orientation
Brain Differences
Brain asymmetry is greater in straight men and lesbian women (right hemisphere larger)
One hypothalamic cell cluster is larger in straight men tan in women and gay men
Prenatal Hormone Influences
Altered prenatal hormone exposure may lead to homosexuality in humans and other animals
Right-handed men with several older biological brothers are more likely to be gay
Genetic Influences
Shared sexual orientation is higher among identical twins than fraternal twins
Sexual attraction in fruit flies can be genetically altered
Brain Differences and Genetic and prenatal influences may contribute to gay-straight differences in…
Spatial abilities Gender nonconformity
Fingerprint ridge count auditory system develop.
Male body size Sleep length
Handedness occupational preferences
Physical aggression relative finger lengths
Male eating disorders age onset of male puberty

54. The Need to Belong Aiding survival Wanting to belong
Sustaining relationships
Ostracism – social exclusion
Increased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex
Baumeister and Leary
(1)Social bonds aided survival rates
(2) Close satisfying relationships with family, friends and romantic partners = happiness
Self esteem is a gauge of how valued and accepted we feel
(3) Fear of being alone. US policies encuorage chain migration - placing refugees from similar locations in same communities have easier time of adjusting
(4) Ostacism = social exclusion (Williams) humans control social behavior through exile, imprisonment, solitary confinement.
Anterior cingulate cortex activates same as physical pain to social pain
Conformity to peer pressure is motivated by belongingness
Social bonding is traced to survival needs = genetic influence
Married people at less risk for depression, suicide = better quality of life if feel supported
Chain migration of refugees and immigrants is encouraged by govt bcs it promotes social ties and easier adjustment
Need to belong is threatened by ostracism
Researchers have discovered that “cyber-ostracism” by strangers elicits increased activity in the anterior cingulated cortex
The anterior cingulate cortex shows increased activity in response to both physical pain and ostracism

55. Achievement Motivation What motivates us to work
Achievement Motivation What motivates us to work? (School, job, sports, video games, relationships etc..)
Intrinsic Motivators
Extrinsic Motivators
Rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction.
Reward that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves (grades or money or etc..)
Work great in the short run.

56. Management Theory Management/Teaching styles relate closely to Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivators.
Theory Y
Theory X
Managers believes that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment.
Employees are Extrinsically Motivated.
Managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive.
Employees are Intrinsically Motivated.

57. When Motives Conflict
approach-approach conflict - must choose between two desirable or attractive goals
Example: Birthday trip to Hawaii or Mexico
avoidance-avoidance conflict - must choose between two more or less equally undesirable or unattractive goals.
Example: unwanted homework or doing unwanted house chores
approach-avoidance conflict – choose to pursue or avoid something that has both positive and negative aspects to it.
Example: Riding a motorcycle to look cool, but freezing your butt off
Multiple approach avoidance conflict – choose between two or more things with both desirable and undesirable features
Example: Choosing a college- Ohio State is inexpensive, but everyone from Solon goes there, Michigan has a great program, but it’s expensive
Approach-approach - Conflict whereby one must choose between two desirable or attractive goals.
Example An example of an approach-approach conflict would be where you have to decide between two appealing destinations for your vacation, for example, Mexico vs. the Caribbean. Another example would be in a situation where you must decide which graduate school to go to (of the two that accepted you). Both of these examples provide two attractive or desirable goals.
Approach avoidance Conflict involving a decision regarding whether to pursue or avoid something that has both positive and negative aspects to it.
Tanya has been with Company X for 12 years. She is offered a job promotion as vice president of the company. It would pay her much more than she is currently making (approach). However, if she was to accept this position, she would have to move to a city that was far away from her extended family (avoidance) and where the weather was much colder (avoidance).
Avoidance avoidance - Conflict whereby one must choose between two more or less equally undesirable or unattractive goals.
An example of this type of conflict would be a situation where you have to decide between doing unwanted homework (avoidance) or doing unwanted house chores (avoidance).